UC-NRLF 


GIFT  or 

Dr.    H,I.    Priestley 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2008  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/completecourseinOOswinrich 


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A 

COMPLKIE 

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COURSE 

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E  O  G  R 

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PHYSICAL,    INDUSTRIAT,,   AND   POLITICAL 

WITH 

A  SPECIAL  GEOGRAPHY  FOR  EACH  STATE 

BY 

WILLIAM    SWINTON 

AUTHOR  OF  WORD-BOOK  SERIES,   LANGUAGE  SERIES,  OUTLINES  OF  HISTORY,  BTC 

1 

• 

IVISON,    BLAKEMAN    AND    COMPANY 

PUBLISHERS 

NEW     YORK    AND    CHICAGO 

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SWINTON'S  GEOGRAPHIES. 


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Sw^Txton's   GeoffrcupKiccd,   Coizrse  comprises  trtvo 
IdooPcs  :  — 

l-ELEMENTARY  COURSE  IN  GEOGRAPHY:  Designed  as 

a  Class- Book  for    Primary  and    Intermediate  Grades,  and   as    a 
Complete  Shorter  Course  for  Ungraded  Schools.     128  pages  8vo. 


2. 


COMPLETE  COURSE  IN  GEOGRAPHY:  physical.  Indus- 

trial,  and  Political ;  with*  a  Special  Geography  for  each  State  in 
the  Union.  Designed  as  a  Class-Book  for  Intermediate  and 
Grammar  Grades.     136  pages  4to. 


%*  These  two  text-books  do  not  bear  the  usual  relation  of  a  Primary  to  a  Gram- 
mar-School  book ;  that  is,  the  Elementary  is  not  a  mere  condensation  of  the 
Complete.  Each  is  an  independent  book,  individual  in  its  plan  and  method,  and 
constructed  with  philosophic  reference  to  the  mental  capacity  of  youth.  They  may 
therefore  be  used  either  separately  or  together. 


COPYRIGHT.  Ifrs- 
ly/SON,  BLAKBMAN.  TAYLOR.  AND  COMPANY. 


PREFACE. 


» »«» > 


1"N  preparing  this  Course  in  Geography  the  author's  aim  has 
-L  been  to  produce  a  book  which  should  be  recognized  by 
teachers  as  striking  a  just  balance  between  conflicting  theories, 
and  as  embodying  what  is  best  in  the  modern  methods  of  geo- 
graphical teaching. 

That  such  a  spirit  of  rational  eclecticism  is  needed  in  the 
preparation  of  a  class-book  in  geography  becomes  manifest 
when  we  consider  the  extreme  one-sidedness  of  the  presenta- 
tion of  the  subject  in  many  text-books.  To  take  a  single 
illustration :  — 

Some  geographers  have  been  so  absorbed  in  showing  how 
the  earth  was  built  up  that  they  have  forgotten  that  on  its 
surface  is  the  toiling  race  of  man,  and  that  it  is  on  his  account 
chiefly  that  the  earth  is  an  object  of  interest.  This  we  may 
call  the  hobby  of  the  physical  geographers.  The  hobby  of  the 
purely  political  geographers  is  the  opposite  of  this.  They 
overlook  the  fact  that  man  on  the  earth  is  subject  to  the 
physical  conditions  of  the  planet,  and  that  in  each  region  these 
conditions  determine,  to  a  great  degree,  the  pursuits,  character, 
and  total  life  of  the  people  inhabiting  that  region,  —  which  fact 
overlooked,  geography  becomes  a  mass  of  meaningless  details, 
without  either  cause  or  correlation,  while  its  study  degenerates 
into  the  baldest  rote-work. 

It  win  sufficiently  illustrate  the  comprehensive  spirit  of  this 
manual  to  say  that  the  author  treats  Physical  and  so-called 
"  Political "  geography  as  inseparable,  as  one  subject,  —  so  that 
the  physical  aspects  and  attributes  of  the  globe,  on  the  one 
hand,  and  man's  doings  on  its  surface,  on  the  other,  form,  in 
place  of  isolated  phenomena,  a  living,  organic  whole. 

With  this  statement  respecting  the  general  spirit  of  the 
book,  the  attention  of  teachers  is  earnestly  invited  to  some  of 
its  more  salient  and  novel  features.     Among  these  are :  — 

I.  The  Oral  Method  adopted  to  introduce  the  topics  coming 
under  the  general  head  of  Definitions  and  Principles.  These 
topics  —  as  the  shape,  size,  and  motions  of  the  earth;  the  man- 
ner in  which  its  surface  is  represented  by  means  of  maps ; 
latitude  and  longitude ;  the  theory  of  climate,  etc.  —  form  the 
basis  of  geographical  knowledge;  and  without  a  genuine  under- 
standing of  these  fundamental  principles  no  satisfactory  progress 


can  be  made.  These  subjects  are  indeed  the  most  abstract  in 
geography;  but  there  seems  to  be  no  good  reason  why  they 
should  therefore  be  presented,  as  they  ordinarily  are,  in  the 
most  abstract  manner.  The  author  has  here  sought  to  bring 
these  principles  really  home  to  the  pupiL  This  is  done  in  the 
Oral  Outlines,  which,  beginning  with  the  pupil's  own  experience 
(see  Topic  IV.,  Climate,  p.  14;  Topic  V.,  Plant-Life,  p.  15,  etc.), 
proceed  by  induction,  step  by  step,  till  a  generalized  statement 
is  reached.  These  generalized  statements  form  the  Eecitation 
part  of  each  topic;  and  both  memorizing  and  reciting  will  in 
this  way  be  easy  and  pleasant,  since  the  pupil  will  have  made 
his  own  definitions  and  reached  the  conclusions  for  himself 

II.  The  Special  State  Geography.  The  need  of  a  much 
more  minute  and  detailed  study  of  local  geography  than  is 
possible  with  existing  text-books  is  becoming  deeply  felt.  The 
dozen  or  the  score  of  vague  because  generalized  and  colorless 
lines  usually  devoted  to  great  States  like  New  York  or  Pennsyl- 
vania, Ohio  or  lUiuois,  are  poorly  fitted  to  furnish  a  pupil  with 
such  equipment  of  geographical  knowledge  as  is  necessary  either 
for  practical  use  or  ordinary  intelligence.  But,  how  to  combine 
any  degree  of  fullness  in  the  text  on  the  individual  States  with 
the  capacity  of  the  pupil  to  learn  such  enlarged  matter  or  the 
time  of  the  teacher  to  hear  it  recited  ? 

In  the  present  book  an  effort  is  made  to  meet  the  desideratum 
of  fullness  on  each  State,  and  at  the  same  time  to  avoid  the 
danger  of  overtasking  the  pupil,  by  the  device  of  a  double  text 
on  the  United  States.  There  is  in  the  case  of  each  State  :  1.  A 
General  text,  which  comes  first  and  is  printed  in  the  larger  tj'pe : 
this  is  to  be  studied  by  all  classes.  2.  A  Special  Geography  of 
each  State,  which  is  designed  for  use  only  by  classes  in  the  State 
under  review.  In  order  further  to  facilitate  the  study  of  local 
State  Geography,  there  is  given  (see  p.  30)  a  Topical  Outline,  the 
filling  up  of  which  may  profitably  occupy  the  attention  of  classes 
for  several  weeks.  It  is  hoped  that  the  elastic  arrangement  of 
a  general  and  a  special  text  will  meet  all  requirements. 

III.  Attention  to  industrial  and  commercial  geography. 
In  the  treatment  both  of  the  United  States  and  the  world  at  large 
considerable  space  has  been  devoted  to  the  important  but  neglected 
subjects  of  indvMrial  and  commercial  geography.     It  has  seemed 


IV 


PEEFACK 


very  manifest  to  the  author  that,  as  a  preparation  for  practical 
life  in  a  country  like  ours,  it  is  of  the  highest  importance  to  lodge 
in  the  minds  of  youth  vivid  and  definite  knowledge  of  how  dif- 
ferent peoples  make  their  living,  of  what  they  contribute  to  the 
commerce  of  the  world,  of  why  the  productive  industry  of  a  nation 
takes  one  form  rather  than  another.  He  doubts  not  that  teachers 
wiU  gladly  suffer  the  absence  of  the  conventional  jejune  descrip- 
tions of  the  Irishman,  the  Italian,  the  Esquimaux,  and  the  Chinese, 
when  they  find  the  space  occupied  with  matters  of  solid  import- 
ance. 

IV.  Teaching  Featuees.  Great  care  has  been  taken,  in  the 
construction  of  the  work,  to  make  it  in  the  best  sense  a  text-hook. 
A  brief  examination  will  reveal  that  it  is  not  loosely  thrown 
together,  but  has  an  organism  of  its  own.  Among  the  features 
which  it  is  hoped  teachers  wiU  notice  with  satisfaction  are  the 
following  two  :  1.  The  paragraphs  are  cast  in  a  form  convenient 
both  for  memorizing  and  recitation.  By  introducing  each  para- 
graph with  bold  type  a  suitable  question  spontaneously  frames 
itself  in  the  minds  of  pupil  and  teacher,  thus  obviating  the 
old  and  inconvenient  form  of  questions  far  removed  frofli  the 
text.  2.  The  method  of  study  pursued  by  the  best  teachers 
being  largely  topical,  ample  provision  has  been  made  to  further 
this  plan,  by  numerous  carefullv  constructed  topical  synopses, 
reviews,  tables,  and  questions. 

V.  The  Maps.  An  inspection  of  the  maps  will  reveal  certain 
novel  features  of  the  greatest  practical  value,  —  as  (1)  the  system 
of  dotting  the  lines  of  latitude  and  longitude  in  such  a  way  that 
the  exact  degree  may  be  at  once  determined  on  any  part  of  the 
map;  (2)  the  marking  of  time-longitude  on  all  the  maps,  and 
(3),  on  the  maps  of  the  Grand  Divisions,  the  noting  the  length  of 
the  longest  day  in  each  division  of  latitude. 


In  regard  to  the  maps  of  the  United  States,  a  device  similar  to 
the  "double  text"  in  the  matter  has  been  adopted, —  that  is  to 
say,  there  are  maps  for  general  study  and  maps  for  particular 
reference  to  be  used  in  connection  with  the  State  specialties.  The 
general  or  section  maps  are  obtained  by  an  equal  division  of  the 
United  States  into  seven  sections.  These  maps  are,  accordingly, 
on  a  uniform  scale  :  their  teaching,  therefore,  is  true  teaching,  and 
not  false  teaching,  as  must  be  the  case  when,  for  example,  the 
map  of  New  England  is  made  the  same  size  as  the  map  of  the 
whole  of  the  Great  West.  The  maps  for  special  reference  in 
connection  with  State  Geography  show  all  the  county  lines,  to- 
gether with  the  county  seats,  or  shire  towns.  They  will  enable 
the  pupil  to  make  what  most  school  maps  do  not  permit  —  a  study 
of  the  political  geography  of  his  State,  while  for  reference  these 
maps  will  be  found  of  permanent  value. 

VI.  The  Illustrations.  The  pictorial  embellishments  of  the 
book  speak  for  themselves.  They  were  designed  and  cut  expressly 
for  this  work  by  the  most  eminent  artists  and  engravers.  They 
are  not  only  of  great  excellence  as  works  of  art,  but,  being  original 
designs  made  with  close  reference  to  the  text,  they  are  of  positive 
educational  value. 

The  preparation  of  this  work,  with  the  accompanying  Elementary 
Geography,  has  occupied  most  of  the  author's  time  and  his  most 
earnest  efforts  for  about  five  years.  It  is  therefore  not  without 
anxiety  that  he  awaits  the  verdict  of  those  who  alone  are  compe- 
tent to  pass  judgment  upon  it,  —  the  teachers  of  our  country.  It 
affords  him,  however,  a  good  hope  of  a  favorable  reception  for 
the  book  that  it  is  the  fruit  of  a  careful  study  of  the  best  methods 
of  geographical  teaching  as  practiced  in  the  leading  cities  of  our 
country  from  Boston  to  San  Francisco. 

CAMBRII.GE,  July.  1875.  WILLIAM   SWINTOK 


NOTE  TO  REVISED  EDITION  (1876). 


In  the  preseut  edition  the  maps  have  been  newly  engraved  in  relief 
process,  and  the  author  has  taken  the  opportunity  to  make  a  consider- 
able reduction  in  the  number  of  places  formerly  named  on  the  section 
maps  of  the  United  States.  An  additional  feature  of  great  value  will 
be  found  in  the  approved  system   of  Map-Drawing  by  the   Messrs. 


Apgar,  now  embodied  in  this  series  of  geographies.  In  the  suggestive 
table  under  "Wants  of  Man"  (p.  18),  the  author  takes  great  pleasure 
in  acknowledging  indebtedness  to  Superintendent  Pickaed's  able  Re- 
port of  the  Chicago  Schools  for  1874. 


CONTENTS. 


I  »>■  > 


PAO* 

SUBJECT  DEFINED 1 

Section  I.    MATHEMATICAL  GEOGRAPHY     ....  1 

Topic     I.    Shape  and  Size  of  the  Earth      ....  I 

"        II.    Direction 2 

"      III.    Axis  AND  Poles       ....               .       .  3 

"       IV.    Map-making 3 

"        v.    Geographical  Position 4 

"       VI.    Map  Representation 6 

"     VII.     Motions  op  the  Earth 6 

"    VIII.    Zones  of  Cliuate 6 

Topical  Synopsis 8 

Section  II.    PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY 8 

Topic     I.    Land  and  Water 8 

"        II.    Divisions  of  Land 8 

"      III.    Divisions  op  Water 10 

Topical  Synopsis 11 

Models  for  describing  Divisions  of  Land  and  Water        .  11 

Topic  IV.    Climate 14 

"        V.    Vegetation 16 

"      VI.    Animal  Lipb 16 

Section  III.    POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY 17 

Topic     I.    Races  of  Men •       .  17 

"       II.    Wants  of  Man 18 

"      III.    Occupations  op  Man 19 

"      IV.    States  op  Society 19 

"       V.    Government 20 

Review  and  Test  Questions      .......  21 

NORTH  AMERICA 23 

Physical  Geography  of  North  America         ....  23 

The  United  States 25 

General  Description 28 

Topical  Outline  for  the  Study  of  the  States        .       .  30 

The  Atlantic  States 32 

Topical  Review  of  the  Atlantic  States    ....  47 

The  South  Central  States 49 

Topical  Review  of  the  South  Central  States         .        .  62 

The  North  Central  States 63 

Topical  Review  op  the  North  Central  States        .        .  67 

The  Plains  and  Rocky  Mountain  Region       ....  69 

The  Pacific  States  and  Territories 75 

Topical  Review  and  Test  Questions  on  the  United  States    .  79 

British  America 81 

Greenland  and  Iceuind 83 

Mexico 84 

Central  America 84 

The  West  Indies 84 

SOUTH  AMERICA 87 

Physical  Oeographt  of  South  America     ....  87 

Brazil 89 

Guiana 89 


run 

Venezuela 89 

States  of  the  Andes 90 

Paraguay  and  Uruguay 91 

Topical  Review  of  South  America. 91 

EUROPE 93 

Physical  Geography  of  Europe 93 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland 95 

France 99 

The  German  Empire 101 

The  Austrian  Empire 102 

Russia 102 

Sweden  and  Norway 103 

Denmark 103 

Holland 104 

Belgium 104 

Switzerland 104 

Spain 106 

Portugal 105 

Italy 106 

Greece 107 

Turkey  in  Europe 107 

Topical  Review  of  Europe 108 

ASIA 109 

Physical  Geography  op  Asia 109 

Chinese  Empire 112 

Japan 113 

Indo-China 113 

British  Asia 113 

Asiatic  Russia 114 

Turkey  in  Asia 115 

Minor  Asiatic  Countries 116 

The  Indian  Archipelago 116 

AFRICA 119 

Physical  Geography  of  Africa 119 

Egypt 120 

The  Barbary  States 121 

The  Sahara 122 

Soudan 122 

West  Africa 122 

East  Africa 122 

South  Africa 123 

Topical  Review  op  Africa 123 

AUSTRALASIA 126 

Australia • 126 

POLYNESIA 126 

GENERAL  REVIEW  OF  THE  WORLD 128 

A  SYSTEM  OP  MAP-DRAWING 18® 

STATISTICAL  TABLES 1*8 

PRONOUNCING  VOCABULARY 1^0 


LIST     OF     MAPS 


1.  MAP  OF  THE  HEMISPHERES 

2.  GLOBULAR  MAP 

a  NORTH  AMERICA • 

4.   PHYSICAL  MAP  OF  NORTH  AxMERICA      .... 
6.   PHYSICAL  MAP  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  . 

6.  THE  UNITED  STATES 

7.  SECTION  MAP  OF  THE  ATLANTIC  STATES 

8.  COUNTY  MAP  OF  NEW  ENGLAND 

9.  COUNTY  MAP  OF  THE  MIDDLE  STATES      . 

10.  SECTION   MAP  OF  THE    SOUTH    CENTRAL  OR  GULF 

STATES        

11.  SECTION  MAP  OF  THE  NORTH  CENTRAL  OR  LAKE 

STATES    

12.  COUNTY  MAP  OF  OHIO,  INDIANA,  AND  MICHIGAN     . 

13.  COUNTY    MAP    OF    MINNESOTA,    IOWA,    WISCONSIN, 

ILLINOIS,  AND  MISSOURI 


PAOE 

.     12 
13 

,     22 


23 
.  25 
26,27 
.     31 

33 
.     38 

.     48 


54 


58 


62,63 


PAOI 

14.  SECTION  MAP  OF  TEXAS  AND  THE  PLAINS          .        .  68 

15.  SECTION  MAP  OF  THE  ROCKY  MOUNTAIN  REGION  .  71 

16.  SECTION  MAP  OF  THE  PACIFIC  COAST      ....  74 

17.  CANADA,    MEXICO,   CENTRAL    AMERICA,    AND   WEST 

INDIES 80 

18.  SOUTH  AMERICA    • 86 

19.  PHYSICAL  MAP  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA       ....  87 

20.  EUROPE 92 

21.  PHYSICAL  MAP  OF  EUROPE 93 

22.  BRITISH  ISLES 97 

23.  CENTRAL  EUROPE 100 

24.  PHYSICAL  MAP  OF  ASIA     .        .        .     ■          ...  109 

25.  ASIA Ill 

26.  AFRICA 118 

27.  PHYSICAL  MAP  OF  AFRICA 119 

28.  OCEANIA 124 


GEOGRAPHY. 


^-*- 


DEFINITIONS   AND    PRINCIPLES. 


THE   SUBJECT   DEFINED. 

(EOGEAPHY  is  a  description  of 
the  earth's  surface,  considered 
as  the  abode  of  man. 

2.  Its  Divisions.  —  Its  main 
divisions  are  Physical  Geogra- 
phy and  Political  Geography. 

3.  Physical  Geography  relates 
to  the  earth's  surface  in  its  nat- 
ural state. 

4  Political  Geography  relates 
to  the  earth's  surface  as  the  seat 
of  nations. 
Physical  Geography  may  be  said  to  be  the  geography  of  nature; 
Political  Geography,  the  geography  of  man. 


Topics 


6.  niustrations.  —  That  Pennsylvania  has  rich  deposits  of  coal 
and  iron  is  a  fact  of  Physical  Geography ;  that  Pennsylvania  is  a 
State  in  the  United  States  is  a  fact  of  Political  Geography.  That 
Russia  is  a  great  plain  is  a  fact  of  Physical  Geography;  that 
Russia  exports  wheat,  hemp,  and  leather,  and  is  ruled  by  a  mon- 
arch called  the  Czar,  are  facts  of  Political  Geography. 

6.  Mathematical  Geography  is  the  term  given  to  certain  facts  of 
astronomy  and  mathematics  which  are  used  in  geography.  The 
astronomical  part  treats  of  the  earth  as  a  planet  of  the  solar  sys- 
tem, —  with  its  size,  motions,  etc. ;  the  mathematical  part  teaches 
us  how  to  represent  the  earth's  surface  on  maps  and  globes. 

7.  Utility  of  Geography.  —  The  particular  character  of  each 
country  greatly  iuHuences  the  pursuits  and  the  condition  of  the 
people  inhabiting  it     From  this  fact  we  may  reason  thus :  — 

That  which  teaches  us  the  relations  between  the  earth  and  man 
must  be  the  most  useful  of  studies. 

Geography  teaches  us  the  relations  between  the  earth  and  man. 
Therefore,  Geography  must  be  the  most  useful  of  studies. 


Physical  Geography. 

FoUtical  OeognpliT'. 

Land. 

Kaces. 

Water. 

Nations. 

•   •  . 

Climate. 

Animals. 

.  Plants,  etc. 

IVipiea 

.    .  ■« 

Industries. 
Governments. 
.  Civilization,  etc 

SECTION  I.-MATHEMATICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

TO  THE  TEACHER.  —An  Oral  Outline,  diBtlnctly  «o  named,  precedes  the  regiilar  Reci- 
tation Lesson,  wMch  is  in  larger  type.  The  use  to  be  made  of  the  Oral  Outlines  is  left  to  the 
discretion  of  the  teacher.  They  may  be  merely  read  over  in  the  class  or  they  may  be  made 
the  basis  of  lively  exposition  by  the  instructor.  The  attention  of  faithful  teachers,  who 
wish  to  do  more  than  mere  rote-work,  is  earnestly  invited  to  this  feature  of  the  book. 


TOPIC    I. 
SHAPE  AND   SIZE   OF   THE   EARTH. 

I.   ORAL   OUTLINE. 

1.  What  appears  to  be  the  shape  of  the  earth,  —  does  it  appear  to 
be,  in  general,  flat  or  round? 

2.  [The  teacher  should  explain  that  for  thousands  of  years  people 
supposed  the  earth  to  be  a  great  extended  plain,  but  that  about  three 
hundred  and  fifty  years  ago  a  navigator  named  Magellan  sailed  around, 
or  dreumnavigated,  the  world,  thus  proving  that  the  earth  is  round.  It 
will  add  interest  to  trace  on  the  globe  or  the  wall-map  of  the  hemi- 
spheres the  course  of  Magellan,  viz.  from  Spain  across  the  Atlantic  and 
through  the  Strait  of  Magellan,  then  across  the  Pacific,  touching  at  the 
Philippine  Islands ;  thence  by  the  Indian  Ocean  and  around  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope  to  Spain  again.] 

3.  Do  we  not  now  often  hear  of  tourists  making  a  trip  around  the 
world  1    Do  you  know  what  time  the  trip  requires  1 

4.  You  have  said  that  the  earth  is  round  ;  but  a  thing  may  be  round 
like  a  penny,  or  round  like  a  pillar,  or  round  like  a  ball :  in  which  of 
these  three  meanings  is  the  earth  round  1  [Let  the  teacher  now  state 
that  an  object  of  the  form  of  a  ball  is  called  a  tphere,  or  globe.  It  may 
be  well  also  to  put  on  the  blackboard  a  diagram  of  a  sphere,  as  in  Fig.  1, 
page  2.]     What  is  meant  by  "  rotundity  "  t     Roundness. 

6,  Is  an  orange  exactly  round  1  Which  jjarts  are  flattened  ?  Correct  j 
the  stem  and  the  part  opposite  are  flattened.  Our  globe,  the  earth,  is 
in  like  manner  somewhat  flattened  at  two  opposite  parts  of  its  sur- 
face; still,  the  earth  is  so  nearly  sphere-like  in  form  that  we  may 
think  of  it  as  exactly  of  that  shape. 

6.  [Teacher  pointing  to  the  school  globe,  which  should  be  introduced 
at  the  very  outset  as  an  indispensable  aid  to  geographical  study.]  Here 
is  a  terrestrial  globe,  or  globe  of  the  earth  :  what  is  its  shape  I  [EUcit 
from  the  pupils  the  term  spherical.]     The  school  globe  is  spherical 

IN    SHAPE ;   IT    IS   A    CORRECT   REPRESENTATION    OF   THE   EARTH's   FORM. 

7.  The  constant  circumnavigation  of  the  world  proves  that  the  earth 
is  of  what  shape  1  There  are  other  proofs  that  the  earth  is  spherical. 
[Let  the  teacher  give  the  proof  from  the  appearance  of  ships  at  sea ;  also 
from  the  fact  that  the  shadow  cast  by  the  earth  on  the  moon,  during  an 
echpse  of  the  moon,  is  cireular.     The  teacher  may  illustrate  the  latter 


MATHEMATICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


fact  by  so  placiag  an  apple  or  a  ball  that  its  shadow  will  fall  upon  the 
wall  or  upon  a  piece  of  white  paper,  and  then  contrasting  it  with  the 
shadow  of  a  cube  or  of  a  book  :  this  will  show  that  the  shadow  repre- 
sents the  shape  of  the  body  that  casts  it.] 

8.  Suppose  we  wish  to  determine  the  size  of  a  globe-shaped  object, 
such  as  an  orange,  may  we  not  do  so  by  passing  a  knitting-needle  through 
the  center  from  some  point  on  the  surface  to  the  opposite  point  ? 
[The  teacher  may  give  the  term  Diameter,  and  define  it  as  measure 
through.']  Now,  how  may  we  measure  around  such  a  body  ?  [Give  the 
term  Circumference,  and  define  it  as  measure  around.] 

9.  Can  we  by  any  such  means  ascertain  the  size  of  an  immense  globe 
like  the  earth?  [The  teacher  may  state  tliat  learned  men  have  by 
mathematical  calculation  ascertained  that  our  globe  is  about  8,000  miles 
in  diameter,  and  25,000  miles  in  circumference.] 

10.  Is  25,000  miles  a  great  distance  ?  If  the  earth  were  all  dry  land, 
and  one  were  to  attempt  to  walk  around  it,  journeying  at  the  rate  of 
twenty-five  miles  a  day,  how  many  days  would  the  journey  require?  In 
one  thousand  days  there  are  how  many  years  ?  How  many  days  would 
a  railroad  train,  moving  constantly  night  and  day,  at  the  rate  of  twenty 
miles  an  hour,  take  to  go  around  the  globe?  What  is  the  longest 
journey  you  ever  made?  This  distance  is  what  part  of  the  "girdle 
round  the  earth  "  ? 

II.    FOR    RECITATION. 

L  A  sphere  is  a  solid  bounded  by  a  curved  surface  every  point 
of  which  is  equally  distant  from  a  point  within  called  the  cen- 
ter.    (See  diagram.) 

2.  The  circumference  of  a  sphere  is  a  line  drawn  around  its  sur- 
face so  as  to  divide  the  surface  into  two  equal  parts.  (See  dia- 
gram.)    Each  half-sphere  is  called  a  Hemisphere.     (See  diagram.) 


DIAGRAM    OF    MATHCMAT1CAL    FIQURES. 


3.  The  diameter  of  a  sphere  is  a  straight  line  passing  through 
the  center,  and  terminating  in  the  circumference.     (See  diagram.) 

4.  The  shape  of  the  earth  is  tliat  of  a  sphere,  or  globe,  slightly 
flattened  at  the  Poles ;  in  exact  language,  an  oblate  spheroid. 

Note.  —  Spheroid  means  like  a  .s])hcre  ;  Mate  means  flattened  at  two  opposite 
sides,  and  an  oblate  spheroid  contrasts  with  a  prolate  spheroid,  which  means  a  sphere 
extended  at  two  opposite  sides.  An  orange  is  an  example  of  an  ohlate  spheroid,  and 
a  lemon,  of  a  prolate  spheroid. 

5.  Proofs  of  Sphericity. — The  sphericity  of  the  earth  is  shown 
by  many  proofs,  among  which  are  tlie  following :  — 

I.  The  continual  circumnavigation  of  the  earth.  This  shows 
that  the  earth  is  round  from  east  to  west  at  least. 

II.  The  appearance  presented  by  a  ship,  approaching  or  reced- 
ing, at  sea  or  on  any  great  lake.  If  the  earth  were  flat  we  should 
first  see  the  hull  of  the  ship,  that  being  largest ;  but  in  fact  we 
see  first  the  tops  of  the  masts  and  then  the  sails,  etc.,  because  the 


curve  of  the  earth's  surface  hides  the  low,  large  huU  of  the  dis- 
tant ship,  while  it  shows  the  tops  of  the  slender  but  tall  masts. 

III.  The  form  of  the  shadow  of  the  earth  seen  in  an  eclipse  of 
the  moon.  When  the  earth  comes  between  the  sun  and  the  moon, 
the  shadow  cast  by  the  earth  on  the  moon  is  circular ;  and  only  a 
spherical  body  can  in  all  positions  cast  a  circular  shadow. 

6.  Size  of  the  EartL  —  The  circumference  of  the  earth  is  nearly 
25,000  miles,  and  its  diameter  nearly  8,000  miles. 

Note.  —  These  are  the  dimensions  in  round  numbers.  The  earth,  being  flattened 
at  the  Poles,  has  a  longest  and  a  shortest  diameter. 

Longest  diameter  (equatorial)  .     .     7,925.65  miles.  1  „.„  ,„«,„     ., 

c,     .    .        ,,       ,    .  ,,  •,  or.n  1-7     >>       f  Difference  of  26.48  miles. 

Shortest        '        (axial).     .     .     .     7,899.17  J 


Greatest  circumference 


24,809 


TOPIC    II. 
DIRECTION   ON   THE   EARTH'S    SURFACE. 

I.    ORAL    OUTLINE. 

1.  When  we  wish  to  state  where  one  place  is  with  regard  to  another, 
we  do  so  by  stating  in  what  direction  the  one  place  is  from  the  other. 
What  are  the  names  of  the  four  principal  points  of  direction,  or  points 
of  the  compass  ? 

2.  Who  knows  how  to  tell  the  points  of  the  compass?  There  are 
two  ways  of  doing  this  :  — 

First  Way.  —  Stand  with  your  right  shoulder  toward  the  sunrise  and 
extend  your  riglit  hand ;  that  will  be  toward  the  east :  the  west  will  be 
at  your  left  hand,  the  north  before  you,  and  the  south  behind  you. 

Second  Way.  —  Stand  with  your  back  toward  the  sun  at  noon,  so 
that  your  shadow  is  exactly  before  you  ,  tlien  the  head  of  your  shadow 
will  be  toward  the  north,  your  back  will  be  toward  the  south,  the  right 
hand  toward  the  east,  and  the  left  hand  toward  tlie  west. 

3.  Point  to  the  east,  —  to  the  west,  —  to  the  north,  —  to  the  south. 
In  which  wall  or  walls  of  the  school-room  are  windows  ?  Which  walls 
have  blackboards?  Name  some  one  in  the  room  who  is  east  from 
you,  —  south  from  you,  etc.  Point  toward  your  home  :  in  what  direc- 
tion is  it  ?  Let  any  pupil  who  lives  north  from  here  rise,  —  any  who 
lives  south,  —  east,  —  west.  Does  the  street  in  which  the  school-house 
is  located  extend  from  north  to  south  or  from  east  to  west?  In  what 
direction  from  here  is  the  nearest  city,  town,  or  village  1  In  what  direc- 
tion from  here  is  the  capital  of  our  State  ? 

4.  [The  teacher  should  now  introduce  the  names 
of  the  intermediate,  or  semi-cardinal  points,  NE, 
SE,  etc.,  as  shown  in  this  diagram  representing  the 
face  of  a  compass.]  Where  is  northeast?  Midway 
between  north  and  east.  Northwest  ?  Southeast  ? 
Southwest  ? 

5.  Who  knows  what  a  compass  is?  What 
kind  have  you  ever  seen? 

d^T*  The  successful  teacher  will  bj  repeated  reviews  train  the  pnpU  to  a  thorosgh 
practical  knowledge  of  Direction. 

II.    FOR    RECITATION. 

1.  Direction  on  the  earth's  surface  is  indicated  by  means  of  cer- 
tain names  of  points  called  Points  of  the  Compass. 

2.  Cardinal  Points.  —  The  Cardinal  Points  are  North,  South, 
East,  and  West. 

3.  How  found. —  North  is  toward  the  North  Pole ;  South,  toward 
the  South  Pole.  Looking  toward  the  North  Pole  with  the  arms 
extended,  East  is  to  the  right  hand,  West  to  the  left. 

4.  The  semi-cardinal  points  are  four  intermediate  directions,  called 
Northeast  and  Northwest,  Southeast  and  Southwest. 


AXIS  AND   POLES.  —  MAP-MAKING. 


TOPIC    III. 
AXIS   AND  POLES. 

I.    ORAL   OUTLINE. 

gr"  The  teacher  m»y.  In  Uii»  instoiioe,  h»ve  the  paragraphB  made  the  topics  of  a  con- 
versational lesson. 

1.  If  I  twirl  an  orange  on  a  knitting-needle,  it  turns,  or  rotates,  on 
the  knitting-needle.  But  suppose  I  could  cause  a  body  that  floats  in 
tlie  air,  such  as  a  soap-bubble,  to  rotate,  on  what  would  it  rotate  1  It 
would  rotate  on  itself.  Still,  we  may  imagine  a  line  or  diameter  on 
which  it  turns ;  and  this  is  called  its  Azis  (a  Latin  word  meaning  axle- 
tree). 

2.  The  earth  rotates,  or  turns  completely  round,  once  every  twenty- 
four  hours,  and  it  is  said  to  turn  on  its  axis.  The  rotation  of  the  earth 
on  its  axis  causes  day  and  night,  by  bringing,  in  turn,  different  parts 
of  the  earth's  surface  toward  or  away  from  the  sun. 

3.  When  a  ball  or  soap-bubble  is  set  rotating,  there  are  two  points 

which  do  not  whirl  around  in  a  cir- 
cle, but  which  remain  stationary,  or, 
rather,  turn  upon  themselves  as  pivots. 
In  like  manner,  at  the  ends  of  the 
axis  of  every  rotating  body  there  are 
two  pivot-points. 

4.  It  is  the  same  with  the  earth. 
Now,  in  the  case  of  tlie  earth  these 
points  are  called  the  Poles  (from  a 
Greek  word  meaning  turning-points). 
6.  One  pole  is  almost  directly  be- 
neath a  famous  star  called  the  North 
Star,  or  Polar  Star.  This  star  may 
be  seen  in  our  country  on  any  clear 
night,  and  may  be  found  by  atten- 
tion to  what  follows. 

6.  In  the  northern  part  of  the 
heavens  is  a  constellation  called  the 
"Great  Bear,"  or,  popularly,  the 
Great  Dipper,  from  the  fancied  re- 
semblance of  seven  of  the  stars  to 
the  outline  of  a  dipper  or  ladle.  The  two  stars  forming  the  outer  side 
of  the  bowl  of  the  dipper,  called  pointers,  point  very  nearly  to  a  bright 
.star  that  forms  the  end  of  the  handle  of  the  "  Little  Dipper."  This 
is  tiie  Polar  Star.    What  pupils  have  ever  seen  the  North  Star? 

7.  The  pole  or  end  of  the  earth's  axis  under  the  North  Star  is 
called  the  North  Pole.  The  opposite  pole  is  called  the  South  Pole ; 
it  is  the  point  on  the  earth  farthest  away  from  the  North  Star. 

8.  So  far  as  is  known,  no  human  being  has  ever  been  at  the  North 
Pole,  though  many  brave  explorers  have  periled  or  lost  their  lives  in  the 
attempt  to  reach  it. 

II.    FOR    RECITATION. 

L   The  earth's  Axis  is  the  imaginary  line,  or  diameter,  on  which 

the  earth  rotates  once  every  twen- 
ty-four hours. 

2.  The  Poles  of  the  earth  are 
the  two  stationary  points  at  the 
ends  of  the  earth's  axis.  They  are 
distinguished  as  the  North  Pole 
and  the  South  Pole. 

3.  The  North  Pole  is  the  pole 
nearest  the  North  Star.  The 
South   Pole   is  the  opposite    ex- 

HPo'i-*  tremity  of  the  earth's  axis;  it  is 

the  point  on  the  earth's  surface  farthest  from  the  North  Star. 


THE    NORTH    STAR. 


»»9.!^T.'j..!!9tc 


TOPIC    IV. 
MAP-MAKING. 


PMrnms  or  a 


1.  What  do  you  see  in  this  picture  of  the  interior  of  a  school-room  1 
"I  see  three  walls."     What  else?  etc.,  etc. 

2.  This  picture  represents  the  various  objects  in  tlie  school-room  in 
the  relative  positions  in  which  we  should  see  them  if  we  stood  at  the 
door  and  looked  in.     Such  a  representation  is  said  to  be  in  perspective. 

3.  If  the  roof  could  be  lifted  off  the  school-room,  and  we  should  then 
look  down,  what  should  we  see?  Should  we  not  see  what  is  on  the 
floor,  or  ground} 


I    or   THK    SCHOOL-ROOM. 


4.  [The  teacher  should  now  draw  the  plan  on  the  blackboard,  elicit- 
ing from  the  pupils  how  it  is  to  be  drawn.  The  pupils  must  then  be 
required  to  copy  the  plan,  first  on  their  slates,  then  on  paper.]  The 
drawing  which  we  have  made  does  not  much  resemble  the  picture,  for 
we  have  merely  represented  by  certain  signs  the  different  objects  seen 
on  the  floor,  or  ground.     Such  a  representation  is  called  a  ground-plan. 

Exercise.  —  For  additional  practice,  the  pupils  should  be  required  to  draw 
a  ground-plan  of  their  school-room.  They  should  be  shown  that  it  is  neces- 
sary to  draw  it  to  some  definite  scale.  Thus,  suppose  that  the  room  is  shown 
to  be  40  X  30  feet ;  pupils  will  readily  understand  that  it  would  be  imprac- 
ticable to  draw  lines  30  or  40  feet  in  length.  Let  the  scale  be  1  inch  to 
5  feet ;  then  the  line  representing  the  longest  side  of  the  school-room  will  be 
8  inches  in  length,  and  that  representing  its  width  6  inches. 

6.  A  map  is  constructed  in  somewhat  the  same  manner  as  a  ground- 
plan  of  a  room  or  of  a  building.  That  is,  wo  use  certain  marks  and 
signs  to  represent  the  various  objects,  locating  them  in  the  relative  situa- 
tions in  which  we  should  see  the  objects  themselves  if  we  looked  down 
from  a  great  height. 


MATHEMATICAL  GEOGEAPHY. 


LANDSCAPE   rOR   MAPPING. 


6.  Here  is  a  picture  of  a  landscape ;  it  is  a  view  of  a  part  of  the 
earth's  surface.  We  wish  to  make  a  map  of  it.  How  do  we  proceed? 
We  indicate  the  various  objects,  as  the  mountains  and  hills,  the  rivers 
and  the  lake,  the  road  and  railroad,  the  village  and  school-house,  by  the 
marks  shown  in  this  map. 


School  House 


MAP   OF    THE    SAME    LANDSCAPE. 


7.  What  is  a  Map  1    A  map  is  a  representation,  on  a  plane,  of  any 
part  (or  the  whole)  of  the  earths  surface. 


'  The  saccessful  teacher  will  not  be  satisfied  with  a  single  exercise  of  tliis  kind,  but 
will  fjive  repeated  exercises  in  drawing  plans  of  the  echool-house  and  grounds,  surrounding 
buildings  or  fields,  etc.  To  more  advanced  pupils,  local  maps  of  the  city,  town,  or  connly 
may  profitably  be  given  at  this  stage. 


TOPIC    V. 
GEOGRAPHICAL   POSITION. 

I.    ORAL    OUTLINE. 

1.  [Teacher  placing  on  the  desk  a  terrestrial  c/lohe.]  What  is  the 
shape  of  this  globe  1  It  represents  the  shape  of  what  ?  Put  your  finger 
on  the  North  Pole,  —  on  the  South  Pole.  This  globe  can  rotate  :  what 
else  rotates  ?     On  what  does  the  earth  rotate  1    What  is  the  earth's  axis  1 

2.  You  see  various  lines  [the  teacher  showing  the  parallels  and  me- 
ridians^ crossing  the  globe  in  different  directions  :  do  you  suppose  there 
are  any  such  lines  on  tbe  surface  of  our  globe,  the  earth  % 

3.  When  we  wish  to  tell  the  location  of  a  building  in  a  city,  how  do 
we  do  so  ?  Can  we  in  any  such  way  describe  the  position  of  a  fly  on 
an  orange  ?    Why  not  1 


PARALLELS   OF    LATITUDE. 


4.  Now,  it  would  be  as  difficult,  without  the  help  of  these  lines  on 
globes  and  maps,  to  denote  the  position  of  a  vessel  on  the  pathless  ocean 
as  to  tell  the  location  of  a  fly  on  an  orange  or  a  smooth  ball. 

6.  The  first  line  that  geographers  use  is  the  Equator.  [The  teacher 
will  point  it  out  on  the  ghhe.^  It  represents  the  earth's  surface  as 
divided  into  two  half-spheres,  or  liemispheres. 

6.  The  half-sphere  between  the  Equator  and  the  North  Pole  [the 
teacher  shoviing  it\  is  called  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  and  that  be- 
tween the  Equator  and  the  South  Pole  the  Southern  Hemisphere. 

7.  By  means  of  the  Equator  we  may  describe  a  place  as  in  the  North- 
ern or  in  the  Southern  Hemisphere ;  that  is,  as  somewhere  between  the 
Equator  and  the  North  or  the  South  Pole.  But  this  is  still  very  indefi- 
nite, between  the  Equator  and  either  Pole  being  more  than  6,000  miles. 

8.  Now,  we  may  describe   locality  more   definitely  by  subdividing 

this  distance  by  a  number  of  lines 
parallel  to  the  Equator.  These  are 
called  Parallels  of  Latitude.  In  the 
cut  here  given  we  have  a  figure  of  a 
globe  with  such  parallels. 

9.  Counting  from  the  Equator 
upward  toward  the  North  Pole,  near 
the  top  of  the  cut,  how  many  of 
these  parallel  lines  or  circles  do  we 
see  ?  Into  how  many  belts  do  these 
eight  circles  divide  the  distance  be- 
tween the  Equator  and  the  North 
Pole?  (The  same  is  the  case  with 
the  distance  between  the  Equator 
and  the  South  Pole,  but  the  figure  does  not  allow  of  all  these  lines 
being  marked.)  By  means  of  these  parallels  we  can  state  the  latitude 
of  a  place.  How  is  this  done?  It  is  done  by  stating  the  number  of 
degrees  any  place  is  distant  from  the  Equator.     [Let  the  teacher  explain.] 

10.  It  is  not  enough  that  we  are  able  to  speak  of  a  place  as  north 
or  south  from  the  Equator :  we  must  have  the  means  of  denoting  its 
position  east  or  west.  For  this  purpose  we  draw  a  number  of  semi- 
circles from  the  North  to  the  South  Pole,  called  Meridians.  With 
these  we  measure  longitude,  which  is  locality  east  or  west. 

11.  But  east  or  west  from  what  f 
We  must  fix  upon  some  meridian 
as  the  starting-point  for  reckoning. 
On  many  American  maps  the  me- 
ridian of  Washington,  the  capital 
of  our  country,  is  chosen ;  but  the 
meridian  most  used  is  that  of 
Greenwich,  near  London,  where 
there  is  a  famous  naval  observa- 
tory. Calling  the  meridian  of 
Greenwich  zero,  we  count  longitude 
eastward  180  degrees,  that  is,  half- 
way round  the  globe,  and  also  west- 
ward the  same  distance. 

12.  When  we  know  the  latitude  and  tbe  longitude  of  a  place  or  of  a 
ship  at  sea,  we  can  ascertain  its  exact  position  on  the  earth's  surface,  be- 
cause the  latitude  shows  us  how  far  it  is  from  the  Equator,  and  the 
longitude  gives  its  situation  east  or  west  of  some  fixed  point.  Thus, 
if  we  should  see  it  announced  that  a  sailor  had  been  cast  away  on 
an  island  in  South  latitude  33^  degrees  and  West  longitude  79  degrees 
(Greenwich),  we  should  know,  by  looking  at  the  map,  that  this  was  the 
island  called  Juan  Fernandez,  or  Robinson  Crusoe's  Island. 


II.    FOR    RECITATION. 

1  The  geographical  position  of  places  is  determined  by  refer- 
ence to  certain  circles  drawn  on  maps  and  globes.  These  are  called 
circles  of  situation. 


MERIDIANS   OF    LONQITUDE. 


MAP  REPKESKNTATION  OF  THE  EARTH. 


2.  The  circles  of  situation  are:  the  Equator,  the  Parallels  of 
Latitude,  anil  the  Meridian  circles. 

3.  The  Equator  is  an  imaginary  circle  around  the  earth,  mid- 
way between  the  Poles.  It  divides  the  eaith  into  a  Northern 
Hemisphere  and  a  Southern  Hemisphere. 

4.  Parallels  of  Latitude  are  circles  around  the  earth  parallel  to 
the  Equator. 

5.  The  latitude  of  a  place  is  its  distance  in  degrees  north  or 
south  of  the  Equator. 

Note.  —  A  Degree  (marked  °)  is  the  860th  part  of  any  circle.  The  60th  part 
of  a  degree  is  called  a  Minute  (marked  '},  and  the  60th  jjart  of  a  minute  ia  called  a 
Seco.nd  (marked  "). 

6.  Latitude  is  reckoned  thus :  North  Latitude,  from  the  Equator, 
where  the  latitude  is  zero,  to  the  North  Pole,  which  is  in  90° 
north  latitude ;  South  Latitude,  from  the  Equator  to  the  South 
Pole,  which  is  in  90°  south  latitude. 


TOPIC    VI. 
MAP   REPRESENTATION    OP    THE   EARTH. 

tST"  Thli  topic  tnay  best  be  treated  in  a  oonvenational  leason. 
L    We  have  learned  in  regard  to  the  terrestrial  globe,  that  it  is  the 
best  representation  of  the  earth's  surface.     It  is  a  map  of  the  earth 
drawn  on  a  sphere. 

2.  But  it  is  often  necessary  to  represent  the  earth,  and  particularly 
parts  of  the  earth,  on  a  plane  surface,  like  a  sheet  of  paper.  We  shall 
see  how  the  whole  of  the  earth's  surface  may  be  represented  on  a  plane 
surface. 

3.  [  The  teacher  turning  toward  the  class  first  the  Western  and  tJien  the 
Eastern  Hemisphere  on  the  school  globe.'\  The  dry  land  on  the  surface  of 
the  earth  is  gathered  together  in  two  great  masses,  called  continents. 
How  shall  we  represent  these  two  continents  and  the  surrounding 
oceans  on  a  flat  surface  1 

4.  If  we  divide  a  globe  (as  we  may  divide  an  orange)  into  halves,  and 
lay  each  half,  or  hemisphere,  on  its  flat  side,  we  shall  be  able  —  shall 
we  not  1  —  to  see  both  halves,  or  hemispheres,  at  the  same  time. 


PARALLELS    AND   MERIDIANS. 


7.  Meridians  (from  a  word  signifying  midday)  are  semicircles 
extending  half  round  the  globe,  north  and  south,  from  Pole  to  Pole. 

8.  The  longitude  of  a  place  is  its  distance  in  degrees  east  or 
west  from  a  given  meridian,  called  the  Prime  meridian. 


ONEINWIOH   OBSKRVATORV. — THE   TMAME8.- 


NoTE.  —The  meridian  of  the  British  Royal  Observatory  at  Greenwich,  near  I-on- 
don,  England,  is  the  prime  meridian  generally  used.  The  meridian  of  Washington 
also  is  used  in  our  country.  In  this  book  the  numbers  at  the  top  of  the  maps  indi- 
cate longitude  counted  from  the  Greenwich  meridian,  and  those  at  the  bottom, 
longitude  counted  from  the  Washington  meridian. 

9.  Longitude  is  reckoned  from  the  prime  meridian  both  east- 
ward and  westward  180°,  or  half-way  around  the  globe. 

10,  Length  of  a  degree.  —  The  length  of  every  degree  of  latitude 
is  69J  statute  miles.  The  length  of  a  degree  of  longitude  is  not 
uniform:  it  is  69 J  statute  miles  at  the  Equator;  but  the  degrees 
constantly  lessen  from  the  Equator  to  the  Poles,  where  they  cease 
to  have  any  length,  since  all  meridians  meet  there. 


HEMISPHERE    PIOTURC 


5.  Here  we  have  a  sort  of  picture  of  the  two  hemispheres  as  we 
should  see  them  if  we  could  look  down  on  the  earth  from  a  great  height. 
This,  however,  is  not  a  map. 

6.  But  now,  if  we  draw  on  paper  two  circles  with  a  frame-work 
of  parallels  and  meridians,  Ave  may  represent  in  them  the  outline  of  the 
earth's  surface,  and  show  the  relative  position  of  the  lands  and  waters. 


HEMISPHKRK   MAP. 


7.  These  are  not  exactly  like  the  two  hemispheres  into  which  we  im- 
agined the  globe  divided,  because  the  globe  hemispheres  have  a  curved 
surface ;  but  they  are  as  close  a  representation  as  can  bo  made  on  a  flat 
surface. 

Notes.  —  1.  The  jmrallcls  do  not  seem  to  bo  parallel  with  one  another  ;  but  they 
are  drawn  as  they  are  in  order  to  rcjiresent  the  rotundity  of  the  earth. 

2.  The  meridians  are  drawn  from  top  to  bottom  in  such  a  way  as  to  show  the 
globular  form  of  the  earth  ;  but  they  mu.st  all  be  supposed  to  cross  the  Eijuator  at 
right  angles,  and  the  direction  of  the  meridiana  indicalcs  due  north  and  south. 

3.  If  the  figures,  or  degrees,  marked  on  the  Equator  to  measure  longitude  increase 
from  left  to  right,  the  longitude  is  east ;  if  from  right  to  left,  it  is  west. 


MATHEMATICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


TOPIC    VII. 
MOTIONS   OF   THE   EARTH. 

I.    ORAL    OUTLINE. 

1.  Does  the  earth  seem  to  us  to  move  1  Do  we  feel  it  move  ?  Does 
the  eartli  move  ] 

2.  Can  you  mention  one  of  its  movements?  The  earth  turns,  or 
rotates,  on  its  axis  once  every  twenty-four  hours.  [The  teacher  may 
state  that  it  has  been  proved  by  observation  of  the  stars  that  the  earth 
rotates  on  its  axis.]  Has  it  always  been  known  that  the  earth  has  this 
movement  1 

3.  From  what  heavenly  body  does  daylight  come?  If  we  hold  a 
globe  up  to  a  light,  how  much  of  its  surface  will  receive  light,  or  be 
illuminated,  at  the  same  time?     [Let  the  teacher  illustrate.] 

4.  What  will  be  the  condition  of  the  other  half  as  regards  light? 
What  may  we  do  with  the  globe  so  that  every  part  shall  in  succession 
be  illuminated  ? 

6.  As  the  earth  turns  on  its  axis  the  sun  is  always  shining  on  one 
half  of  its  surface.  What  is  this  period  called  ?  What  is  the  other 
period,  when  half  the  earth  is  in  its  own  shadow,  called  ? 

6.  Does  the  earth  appear  to  rotate  1  Does  not  the  sun  rather  seem  to 
move  around  the  earth  ?  In  what  part  of  the  horizon  does  the  sun  seem 
to  rise,  —  to  set  ? 

7.  If  we  carry  the  light  around  the  school  globe,  will  not  every  part 
be  in  turn  illuminated,  just  as  if  we  make  the  globe  rotate  in  front  of 
the  light  ?  Which  of  these  two  ways  is  the  easier  way  of  lighting  in 
succession  every  part  of  the  school  globe  ? 

8.  The  sun  is  many  thousand  times  larger  than  our  globe,  the  earth  : 
what  conclusion,  then,  do  you  draw,  —  that  the  sun  really  wheels  around 
the  earth,  as  it  appears  to  do,  or  that  the  earth  rotates  on  its  axis  ? 

9.  Now  you  are  to  learn  that  the  earth  has  another  movement.  Like 
all  the  heavenly  bodies  which  we  call  planets,  it  revolves  around  the 
sun.  The  time  it  takes  to  perform  this  motion  is  called  a  year.  How 
long  is  a  year?  You  see,  then,  that  the  earth  has  two  motions,  and 
these  two  motions  are  going  on  all  the  time.  [A  good  illustration  is 
presented  by  a  spinning  top,  which  while  spinning,  tliat  is,  rotating  on 
its  axis,  may  also  be  moving  around  some  point  on  the  floor.] 

10.  The  yearly  revolution  of  the  earth  around  the  sun  produces  won- 
derful effects.  It  causes  the  change  of  seasons,  and  also  the  varying 
length  of  day  and  night  in  different  parts  of  the  earth. 

FOR    RECITATION. 

L  The  motions  of  the  earth  are  two  :  a  daily,  or  diurnal,  rotation 
on  its  axis ;  and  a  yearly,  or  annual,  revolution  around  the  sun. 

2.  The  effect  of  the  rotation  of  the  earth  on  its  axis  from  west  to 
east  is  the  alternation  of  day  and  night;  the  rotation  makes  the 
sun  seem  to  rise  in  the  east  and  set  in  the  west. 

3.  The  effect  of  the  revolution  of  the  earth  around  the  sun,  com- 
bined with  a  peculiar  inclination  of  the  earth's  axis  and  its  un- 
changing direction,  is  the  change  of  seasons. 

4.  Explanation.  —  In  winter  the  Pole  nearest  us  is  turned  from 
the  suu,  which  therefore,  even  at  midday,  appears  very  low  in 
the  heavens,  and  its  rays  fall  upon  us  in  a  slanting  direction.  In 
summer  the  Pole  nearest  us  is  turned  toward  the  sun,  which 
therefore  appears  high  in  the  heavens,  and  its  rays  consequently 
fall  more  directly  upon  us.  The  more  nearly  overhead  the  sun  is 
to  us,  the  more  do  we  feel  its  heat.  When  it  is  highest  we  have 
the  heat  of  summer,  and  when  it  is  lowest  we  have  the  cold  of 
winter. 

Cause  of  the  Seasons. — If  it  is  thought  advisable  to  enter  into  the 
difficult  subject  of  the  astronomy  of  the  seasons,  the  teacher  may  make  a  fuller 
explanation,  using  the  following  facts  and  the  accompanying  diagram  :  — 


SEPTEMBER 


DECEMBER 


TO   ILLUSTRATE   THE   SEASONS. 


The  earth's  orbit  is  its  path  around  the  sun. 

The  jjlane  of  its  orbit  is  the  surface  included  within  the  orbit. 


3.  The  earth's  axis  is  inclined  23J°  toward  the  plane  of  its  orbit. 

4.  The  earth's  axis  also  preserves  a  parallel  position  in  every  part  of  the  orbit,  be- 
cause the  North  Pole  continually  points  toward  the  North  Star. 

5.  The  diagram  given  above  shows  the  position  of  the  earth  at  four  marked  periods 
in  the  earth's  journey.  The  change  of  seasons  is  produced  hy  the  earth's  revolution 
around  the  sun,  coupled  with  Vie  fact  that  the  earth's  axis  is  amstarUly  inclined  to  the 
plane  of  its  orbit,  and  always  points  in  the  same  direction. 


TOPIC    VIII. 
ZONES    OP    CLIMATE. 


I.    ORAL    OUTLINE. 


L  In  our  own  country  which  part  of  the  day  is  the  cooler,  • — 
morning  or  noon,  —  noon  or  evening  ?  When  is  the  sun  highest,  — 
at  noon  or  in  the  morning  or  evening  ? 

2.  We  must  understand  why  it  is  hotter  at  noon  than  in  the  morning 
or  evening,  because  the  knowledge  of  this  will  help  us  to  understand 
why  the  earth  is  divided  into  belts,  or  zones,  according  to  the  tempera- 
ture, or  amount  of  heat  received  in  each  throughout  the  year. 

3.  From  what  heavenly  body  do  we  receive  our  heat  ?  When  do 
you  think  the  rays  of  the  sun  fall  most  slantingly,  in  the  morning  or  at 
noon  ?  Correct ;  in  the  morning  the  rays  of  the  sun  fall  in  a  slanting 
direction,  and  we  receive  comparatively  few  of  the  rays,  because  they 
are  spread  over  a  great  surface.  At  noon,  when  the  sun  is  more  or 
less  nearly  overhead,  the  sun's  rays  fall  more  or  less  directlij  upon  us, 
and  we  receive  more  of  them  because  they  fall  ujion  a  comparatively 
small  space. 

4.  Eays  falling  from  directly  overhead  are  said  to  bo  vertical ;  those 
falling  in  a  slanting  direction  are  said  to  be  oblique.  [The  following 
diagram  put  upon  the  blackboard  will  bring  the  matter  home  to  the 
pupil's  comprehension.] 

Note.  —  This  figure  represents  what 
we  may  call  three  sMaJs  of  the  sun's 
rays.  The  vertical  sheaf  of  rays,  strik- 
ing tlie  earth  at  noon,  falls  upon  the 
small  surface  between  C  and  D.  In  the 
middle  of  the  forenoon  or  afternoon  the 
rays,  falling  obliquely,  are  spread  over 
the  greater  surface  D  E.  At  sunrise  or 
sunset  no  part  of  the  sheaf  touches  the 
earth's  surface  except  its  lower  side, 
and  most  of  the  rays  are  lost  in  tlie 
atmosphere  beyond. 


VERTICAL    AND    OBLIQUE    RAVS. 


5.  Now  remember  these  two  facts  :  1 .  The  more  nearly  vertical  the 
rays  of  the  sun  are  at  any  place,  the  hotter,  as  a  general  rule,  it  is  there ; 
2.  The  more  obliquehj  the  rays  of  the  sim  fall  upon  any  part  of  the  earth, 
the  cooler,  as  a  general  rule,  it  is  there. 

6.  In  our  part  of  the  world,  when  is  the  sun  the  more  nearly  over- 
head, —  in  the  summer  or  in  the  winter  ?  At  which  of  these  two 
seasons,  then,  are  the  sun's  rays  the  more  nearly  vertical  to  us  ?  Which 
season,  then,  must  be  the  colder,  —  summer  or  winter  ? 

7.  In  our  part  of  the  world  is  the  sun  ever  directly  overhead  ?  [The 
teacher  should  explain  that  in  our  country  the  sun  is  never  directly 


ZONES   OF   CLIMATE 


overhead,  and  that  his  rays  fall  upon  us  in  the  most  nearly  vertical  direc- 
tum on  the  longest  summer  day  (from  14  J  to  15  J  hours  long,  in  June). 
It  will  add  interest  if  the  teacher,  by  reference  to  an  almanac,  will 
state  the  exact  length  of  the  longest  day  for  each  locality.] 

8.  If  we  direct  a  stream  of  water  through  a  pipe  upon  a  large  ball, 
which  part  of  the  ball  will  the  stream  strike  with  most  force  1  Will  it 
be  that  part  directly  opposite  the  pipe  ]  Is  the  earth  of  the  same  shape 
aa  the  ball  1  Which  part  of  the  earth's  surface,  then,  will  the  sun's  rays 
strike  most  directly  1  [The  teacher  should  hero  state  that  the  sun 
always  shines  vertically,  or  nearly  so,  on  the  Equator  and  on  a  considera- 
ble belt  beyond  the  Equator  on  each  side  of  it.  Give  the  name  Tonid 
Zone,  and  point  out  the  Tropics  on  the  globe ;  but  there  is  no  need,  at 
thb  point,  to  enter  into  any  mathematical  considerations  involved  in  the 
situation  of  these  circles.]  In  the  Torrid  Zone  the  climate  is  very  hot 
all  the  year  round. 

9.  On  what  parts  of  the  earth's  surface  must  the  sun's  rays  fall  most 
slantingly]  Where,  then,  do  you  think  the  coldest  parts  of  the  earth 
are  1  [The  teacher  will  give  the  name  Frigid  Zones,  and  show  them  on 
the  globe;  also  the  Arctic  and  Antarctic  Circles.] 

10.  Since  there  is  a  region  on  each  side  of  the  Equator  (where  the 
sun's  rays  fall  most  directly)  that  is  constantly  hot,  and  a  region  around 
each  of  the  Poles  (where  the  sun's  rays  fall  most  slantingly)  that  is 
constantly  cold,  what  may  you  conclude  about  the  two  belts  between 
the  very  hot  zone  and  each  of  the  two  Frigid  Zones  1  [Teacher  point- 
ing to  the  Temperate  Zone*  on  tlie  terrestrial  glohe.'\  Do  the  sun's  rays 
fall  on  Uiese  belts  as  vertically  as  on  the  Torrid  region  1  Do  they  fall 
as  obliquely  as  on  the  Frigid  regions  1  Can  the  regions  in  these  middle 
belts  be  as  constantly  hot  as  in  the  Torrid  Zone  1  Can  they  bo  as  con- 
stantly cold  as  in  the  Frigid  Zones  1  [Let  the  teacher  give  the  name 
Temperate  Zones.]     We  live  in  the  North  Temperate  Zone. 

ty  A  thorough  glob»<tady  of  the  Zones  ihonld  here  be  made. 


n.   FOR    RECITATION. 

L  The  bonndaries  of  climate  are  marked  on  maps  and  globes  by 
means  of  certain  circles,  called  climatic  circles. 

2.  The  climatio  circles  are :  the  Tropic  of  Cancer,  the  Tropic  of 
Capricorn,  and  the  two  Polar  Circles. 


CLrMATIO   CIROLEft. 

3.  The  Tropic  of  Cancer  is  a  i)arallel  23^°  to  the  north  of  the 
Equator ;  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn,  a  jjarallel  23J°  to  the  south  of  it. 

Note.  — The  Tropic  of  Cancer  marks  the  northern  limit  of  places  tliat  can  have  the 
nun  directly  overhead,  or  vertical ;  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn  marks  the  southern  limit 
of  places  that  can  have  the  sun  vertiuaL 

4.  The  Polar  Circles  are  the  Arctic  Circle,  231"  from  the  North 
I'ole,  ami  the  Antarctic  Circle,  23^"  from  the  South  Pole. 

Note.  —  Tlie  Polar  Circles  mark  the  limits  (from  either  Pole)  within  which  the  sun 
remains  wholly  above  the  horizon  for  a  term  of  more  than  twenty-four  hours  at  one 
season  of  the  year,  or  does  not  rise  for  a  term  of  more  tlian  twenty-four  hours  at 
the  opposite  |ieriod  of  the  ycair. 


6.  The  zones  of  climate  are  belts  of  the  earth's  surface  enclosed 
by  these  circles,  as  drawn  on  maps  and  globes. 

&   The  zones  are :  one  Torrid  Zone,  two  Temperate  Zones,  and 
two  Frigid  Zones. 

7.  The  Torrid  Zone  is  between  the  Tropic  of  Cancer  and  the 
Tropic  of  Capricorn,  and  extends  23J°  each  side  of  the  Equator. 

Note.  —The  Torrid  Zone  is  47°  (=  about  3,250  miles)  in  breadth. 


ZONES   OF   CLIMATE. 


8.  The  Temperate  Zones  lie  between  the  Tropics  and  the  Polar 
Circles,  —  the  North  Temperate  Zone  between  the  Tropic  of  Cancer 
and  the  Arctic  Circle,  and  the  South  Temperate  Zone  between  the 
Tropic  of  Capricorn  and  the  Antarctic  Circle. 

Note.  —  Each  Temi)erate  Zone  is  43°  (=  nearly  3,000  miles)  in  breadth. 

9.  The  Frigid  Zones  —  the  noithem  called  the  North  Frigid,  or 
Arctic  Zone,  and  the  southern  the  South  Frigid,  or  Antarctic 
Zone  —  lie  between  the  Polar  Circles  and  the  Poles. 

Note.  —  Each  Frigid  Zone  is  23J°  (=  about  1,625  miles)  in  width. 

10.  Table  of  Zonea  —  The  following  table  presents  a  view  of  the 
several  zones,  with  important  particulars  under  the  various  topics 
of  climate,  vegetation,  products  of  cultivation,  animals,  and  popu- 
lation :  — 


Climate. 

Vegetation. 

ProdDcts  of 
Cnltivation. 

Animals 

Population. 

/'Marked  by  great 

Marked    by    a 

Cotton,  coffee. 

Noted  for  their 

Generally  of  a 

and      uniform 

very  groat 

sug.ir,      rue, 

largeness. 

dark    com- 

heat, with  two 

luxuriance  : 

spices,    or- 

fierceness. 

plexion,  and. 

seasona,  —  the 

characteristic 

anges,     bana- 

and strength  : 

with  few  ex- 

rainy and  the 

trees     are 

nas,  etc. 

characteristic 

ceptions,  not 

Torrid 

dry ;  8now  nev- 

palms and 

types  are  tlie 

progressive  or 

Zone. 

er  seen  except 

tree-ferns. 

elephant,lion, 

highly    civil- 

on high  moun- 

mahogany, 

camelopard. 

ized;  Inmost 

tain-tops;  days 

rosewood. 

rhinoceros. 

cases  savage*. 

and  nights  of 

caoutchouc. 

tiger,  gorilla. 

litUe  variation 
in  length. 

etc. 

crocodile,  oe- 
trich. 

^Marlicd  by  the 

0,ik,       burel, 

Grains,     jtota- 

The    domestic 

The     superior 

four     seasons, 

olive,  etc.,  in 

toes,  peas. 

animals,      as 

races    of  the 

with  hot  sum- 

the warm  re- 

beans,     flax, 

the  horee,  ox. 

world,   noted 

mers  and  cold 

gion  ;   maple. 

hemp,   the 

sheep,  camel, 

for  theirgreat 

Tampermte, 

winters,      and 

elm,      beech, 

apple,  the 

etc.:alsodeer. 

I>rogre8s      in 

Zo&os. 

days        and 

oak,    walnut. 

iwar,  rice,  to- 

wolves, bean, 

wealth.  Intel- 

nights varying 

che8tnut,etc.. 

bacco,  cotton. 

etc. 

ligence,     and 

more  in  length 

in  the  middle 

enterprise. 

than  In  Torrid 

region ;  i)ine, 

l_  Zone. 

flr,  in  the  cold 
region. 

rMarlced     by    a 

Exceedingly 

Neither    grain 

White       bear, 

Scanty      in 

long    and     in- 

scanty, be- 

nor   esculent 

reindeer,  and 

numbers,  and 

tensely       cold 

ing  almost 

fhiits  can  bo 

fur- bearing 

showings  low 

winter,  and  by 

conSned  to 

grown. 

type  of  civU- 

a    short     but 

mosses  and 

the       whale. 

Ization. 

comparatively 

lichens. 

walrus,    seal. 

Frigid     1 
Zones.      1 

warm  anmmer. 

andaea-birda. 

with     days 

lengthening 

toward     the 

. 

Poles,      where 

day  and  night 

are    each    six 

months  long. 

PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


TOPICAIi   STNOPSIS   TOR  REVIEW. 

C  Geography 
Subject  defined,  i       and  ('Mathematical. 

L  Its  subdivisions J  physical. 

I  PoliticaL 


Seflnition  of 
Terms. 


Shape  and  size 
of  the  Earth. 


Sphere  and  Hemisphere. 

Diameter. 

Circumference. 

{Degrees. 
Minutes. 
Seconds. 

'  General  shape. 

f  By  appearance  of  ships. 

Proofs  of  rotundity J  By  shadow  in  eclipses. 

I  By  circumnavigation. 

Oblate  spheroid |  Longest  diameter. 

*^  \Shortest 

Extent  of  circumference. 

"        diameter. 
Axis  defined. 

The  Poles rNorth. 

\  South. 


Circles  of  Situ- 
ation. 


Their  use. 
Their  names . . 


Motions  of  the 

Earth. 


Climatic  Circles 
and  Zones. 


CEquator rNorthem  Hemisphere. 

I  Parallels.  \Southem 

^>  Meridians. 

("North  Latitude,  how  reckoned. 
Latitude  defined...  J  gg^jjj        <«  •<         " 

V  Length  of  degree. 

(Prime  Meridian. 
East  Longitude. 
West        " 
Length  of  degree. 

f  On  what. 
Rotation J  lu  what  time. 

I  Result. 
("Around  what. 
Revolution J  Jq  ^jjat  time. 

Uesult. 

(- „      .  /Of  Cancer. 

"      \0f  Capricorn. 

Climatic  Circles...  J  ,  a    ^    r.-    i 

I  Polar  Circles (^^f\C"-=>  , 

I  I.  Antarctic  Circle. 


Torrid  Zone 

Temperate  Zones.. 
Frigid  Zones 


Situation. 
Characteristics. 
Situation. 
Characteristics. 

Situation. 
Characteristics. 


f^"  At  this  point  the  teacher  should  make  the  Topical  Synopsis  the  basis  of  a  series  of 
review  lessons.  A  week  may  profitably  be  spent  in  this  work.  The  pupils  should  be  re- 
quired to  recite  by  topics  and  in  their  own  language,  instead  of  by  piecemeal  questioning. 

Model  :  Topic  I.  —  Subject  Defined. 

Mathematical,  Physical,  and  Political  Geography  are  the  three  subdivisions  of  the 
science  of  Geography.  This  science  treats,  in  general,  of  the  earth's  surface,  con- 
sidered as  the  abode  of  man.  Mathematical  Geography  has  to  do  with  the  shape, 
size,  and  motions  of  the  earth,  and  with  the  mode  of  representing  the  surface  of  our 
planet  on  maps  and  globes.  The  two  main  divisions  of  Geography,  however,  are 
Physical  Geography  and  Political  Geography.  Some  of  the  topics  treated  of  in 
Physical  Geography  are  the  land  and  water  surface  of  the  earth,  the  climate  of  its 
various  regions,  and  the  plants  and  animals  that  live  upon  it.  Some  of  the  topics 
treated  of  in  Political  Geography  are  the  various  races  and  nations  of  the  earth, 
with  their  industries,  governments,  and  civilization.  Physical  Geography  is  the 
geography  of  nature ;  Political  Geography,  the  geography  of  man. 

I^~  In  connection  with  the  review  it  is  recommended  that  some  of  the  more  interesting 
topics  be  assigned  as  subjects  for  compositions. 


Section  IL- PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


TOPIC    I. 
LAND   AND   WATER. 

I^"  To  classes  but  little  advanced  this  topic  should  be  introduced  by  an  examination  of 
the  terrestrial  globe.  The  teacher  should  have  the  pupils  determine  for  themselves  how 
much  of  the  earth's  surface  is  land  and  how  much  is  water;  then  let  the  teacher  show 
how  the  two  great  land-masses  partially  enclose  the  ocean-basins,  and  give  the  names  of 
the  two  continents  and  five  oceans. 

FOR    RECITATION. 

1.  The  earth's  snrface  consists  of  land  and  water,  —  a  little  over 
one  quarter  being  land,  and  nearly  three  quarters  water. 


QRAND  DIVISIONS  OF   LAND  AND  WATER. 


2.  The  land  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  is  in  the  form  of  Conti- 
nents and  of  Islands.  The  most  striking  difference  between  con- 
tinents and  islands  is  in  their  size ;  continents  being  merely  very 
large  islands,  —  so  large  as  to  contain  many  different  countries. 

3.  The  Continents  are  the  two  great  bodies  of  dry  land  on  the 
earth's  surface.  The  continent  in  the  Eastern  Hemisphere,  con- 
taining Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  is  called  the  Eastern  Continent ; 
that  in  the  Western  Hemisphere,  containing  North  and  South 
America,  is  called  the  Western  Continent. 

4.  The  Ocean  is  the  great  continuous  body  of  salt  water  sur- 
rounding the  globe  and  covering  three  fourths  of  its  surface. 

5.  Its  subdivisions.  —  An  ocean  is  a  certain  part  of  this  great 
body  of  water,  distinguished  by  a  particular  name.  The  Ocean 
forms  three  great  basins :  the  Pacific  Ocean,  Atlantic  Ocean,  and 
Indian  Ocean ;  and  two  lesser  basins :  the  Arctic  Ocean  and  the 
Antarctic  Ocean  —  the  former  in  the  region  of  the  North  Pole,  the 
latter  in  that  of  the  South  Pole. 


TOPIC    II. 
DIVISIONS    OP   LAND. 


ORAL    OUTLINE. 


1.  The  edge  of  the  land,  where  land  and  water  meet,  is  called  the 
shore,  or  sea-coa.st :  did  you  ever  see  the  sea-coast  1  Is  it  even  and 
straight,  or  is  it  curved  and  jagged? 

2.  Three  names  are  given  to  the  land-part  of  the  earth's  surface, 
according  to  its  form.  If  the  land  juts  out,  or  projects,  from  the  main 
body,  so  that  the  water  almost  surrounds  it,  it  is  called  a  Peninsula,  — ■ 
a  word  meaning  almost  an  island.  If  the  land  is  a  point  projecting  into 
tlie  sea,  it  is  called  a  Cape,  —  a  word  meaning  a  head  (of  land),  or,  as 
we  say,  a  headland.  If,  again,  a  part  of  the  land  is  shaped  something 
like  the  neck  in  the  human  body,  that  is,  if  it  is  narrower  than  the  two 


DIVISIONS   OF  LAND. 


parts  of  land  it  connects,  it  is  called  an  Isthmus,  —  a  Greek  word  which 
means  neck. 

3.  "What  peninsida  have  you  ever  seen  1  Do  you  know  of  any  large 
cities  in  our  country  situated  on  small  peninsulas  %  Did  you  ever  see 
a  cape,  point,  or  headland  1  If  so,  into  what  water  does  it  extend  % 
Name  all  the  capes  you  ever  heard  of.  Do  you  know  the  name  of  any 
isthmus  f 

4.  Is  the  land  all  on  a  level  ?  What  do  you  call  a  flat  and  even  stretch 
of  country]  What  is  a  lofly  plain  called  1  [Teacher  will  give  the  word 
PLATEAU.)  What  is  an  elevation  of  the  land  called  1  What  is  a  lofty 
elevation  called  1     What  is  a  depression  between  higher  ground  called  1 

6.  You  may  notice  that  in  some  parts  the  earth's  surface  is  level,  in 
others  sunk,  and  in  still  others  raised ;  and  so  we  have  four  divisions 
of  the  lanU  surface  with  regard  to  height  These  are  Plains,  Vallevs, 
P'.^TKAu^  aud  Mountains. 

•J.  A«  ii»ere  any  mountains  in  or  near  the  place  where  you  live? 
If  so,  what  are  they  called?  How  high  are  theyl  What  is  the  name 
of  the  highest  mountain-peak  you  ever  heard  of?  Are  there  any  hills 
in  or  near  the  place  wliere  you  live?  If  so,  tell  their  names.  Can 
you  tell  the  difference  between  a  hill  and  a  mountain?  What  valley 
have  you  ever  seen  1  In  what  country  is  the  great  valley  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi ?     What  is  the  difference  between  a  valley  and  a  mountain  ? 

7.  We  have  learned  that  the  parts  of  the  land  may  be  classed  accord- 
ing to  their /orwi  and  according  to  their  height. 


Bj  Form 


/Peninsulas. 
•  -j  Capes. 
Usthmuses. 


Br  HelBht 


Plains 
Valleys 
Plateaus 
Mountains 


II.    FOR    RECITATION. 


L  The  Continents  are  the  two  great  bodies  of  land  on  the  earth's 
surface,  and  are  called  respectively  the  Eastern  Continent,  or  Old 
World,  and  the  Western  Continent,  or  New  World. 

2.  An  island  is  a  body  of  land  smaller  than  a  continent,  and 
surrounded  by  water. 

Note.  —  The  island  of  Australia  is  so  large  that  it  is  often  called  a  continent. 

3.  The  coast,  sea-coast,  or  seaboard  of  a  continent  or  island  is 
that  part  bordering  on  the  sea.  The  irregular  line  in  which  the 
surfaces  of  land  and  water  meet  is  called  the  Coast-link. 

4.  Land-forms  are  classified  (1)  according  to  their /arm  (or  shape 
as  determined  by  the  coast-line),  and  (2)  according  to  their  height 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  former  is  called  the  Contour  of  a 
body  of  land ;  the  latter  is  called  its  Kelief. 

6.  According  to  contour,  bodies  of  land  are  classified  as  Penin- 
sulas, Capes,  and  Isthmuses. 

6.  A  peninsula  is  a  portion  of  land  almost  surrounded  by  water. 

7.  A  cape  is  a  point  of  land  projecting  into  the  sea. 
A  promontory,  or  headland,  is  a  high  cape. 

8.  An  isthmos  is  a  narrow  neck  of  land  connecting  two  larger 
bodies  of  land. 

9.  According  to  relief,  there  are  two  main  divisions  of  land, — 
Highlands  and  Lowlands.     These  are  subdivided  as  follows :  — 


Forms  of  Belief  .    . 


[■-"""^  {v^ 


l^  Highlands.  J 


Plateaus. 
Mountains. 


1(X  A  plain  is  a  tract  of  generally  level  land,  not  raised  much 
above  the  sea  According  to  their  characteristics,  plains  receive  in 
different  parts  of  the  world  distinctive  names ;  as  prairies,  llanos, 
telvas,  pampas,  steppes,  deserts. 


Prairie  (the  French  word  for  meadow)  is  the  name  given  to  one  of  the  open, 
slightly  undulating,  grassy  plains  of  the  United  States. 

Uanoa  are  the  river  plains  of  South  America  ;  in  the  rainy  season  they  are  cov- 
ered with  rank  vegetation,  and  in  the  dry  season  they  are  deserts. 

Selvas  (Latin  silva,  a  wood)  are  higher  tracts  of  the  same  region  densely  covered 
with  forests. 

Pampas  are  treeless  but  grassy  plains  found  in  cei-tain  parts  of  South  America. 

Steppes  are  the  plains  of  Northern  Asia  ;  they  are  sometimes  covered  with  rough 
herbage,  and  sometimes  they  are  deserts. 

Deserts  are  dry  plains.  The  rainless  part  of  Africa,  called  "Sahara,"  is  the 
greatest  of  deserts.  Fertile  spots  in  the  desert,  made  by  springs,  are  called  Oases; 
here  the  wandering  Bedouin  finds  shade  and  dates,  and  his  camels  obtain  water. 


IL  A  valley  is  a  depression  in  the  land  below  the  level  of  the 
surrounding  country.  The  forms  of  valleys  are  exceedingly  varied  : 
in  some  cases  the  slopes  are  long  and  gentle ;  in  others  they  are 
abrupt  and  steep,  so  that  the  valley  passes  gradually  into  a  ravirie 
or  defile. 

12.  A  platean,  or  table-lavd,  is  an  extensive  plain  at  a  consider- 
able height  (as  a  thousand  feet,  or  more)  above  the  level  of  the 
sea. 

13.  A  mountain  is  an  abrupt  elevation  of  the  earth's  surface, 
rising  to  a  height  of  two  thousand  feet  or  upward.  Lower  eleva- 
tions are  called  hills. 

Mountain-Terms.  —  The  following  terms  denoting  the  various  features 

of  mountains  should  be  observed  :  — 

1.  The  base  of  a  mountain  is  its  foot,  or  the  beginning  of  its  ascent 

2.  The  slopes  of  a  mountain  are  its  inclined  sides. 

3.  The  summit  of  a  mountain  is  its  top,  or  highest  point. 

4.  The  crest  of  a  mountain  ridge,  or  range,  is  the  line  along  its  top. 

5.  Passes  are  sudden  depressions  or  breaks,  affording  the  means  of  crossing 
mountain  barriers. 

14  A  watershed  (literally  water-parting)  is  a  ridge,  or  height  of 
land  which  separates  two  streams  that  flow  in  opposite  directions. 
The  term  watershed  is  used  also  to  denote  the  slope  down  which  a 
stream,  or  a  system  of  streams,  flows. 


A   WATCRSHLU 


16.   A  mountain-range,  or  mountain-chain,  is  a  connected  series 
of  mountains  extending  in  the  same  general  direction.     Most 


10 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


mountains  are  in  this  form  rather  than  in  the  form  of  single 
detached  heights. 

16.  A  mountain-system  consists  of  several  mountain-ranges  near 
together  and  extending  in  the  same  general  direction. 

17.  A  volcano  is  a  mountain  that  sends  forth  smoke,  ashes,  and 
melted  matter,  called  lava,  through  an  opening  called  its  crater. 

1&  The  basin  of  a  river  signifies  the  whole  tract  of  country 
drained  by  the  river  and  its  tributaries. 


TOPIC    III. 
DIVISIONS   OF   WATER. 

ORAL   OUTLINE. 

Ca^SlHE  Ocean,  or  Sea,  is  the  great 
—      *  body   of    salt   water    thai 

surrounds  the  globe.  It  is 
immensely  large, — so  large 
that  we  may  sail  on  it  for 
days  and  weeks  without 
seeing  a  sign  of  land. 

2.  The  Ocean  is  really  one 
body,  yet  different  names 
are,  for  the  sake  of  con- 
venience, given  to  different 
parts  of  it.  [Let  the  teach- 
er review,  by  means  of  the 
school  globe  or  the  wall-map,  the  names  of  the  five  oceans.] 

3.  Do  you  live  on  the  sea-coast  or  inland  ?  Did  you  ever  see  any 
part  of  the  ocean  1  What  is  the  name  of  it  ?  A  number  of  the  States 
in  our  country  border  on  the  Atlantic  Ocean  :  does  the  State  in  which 
we  live  belong  to  this  number  t  Does  the  State  in  which  we  live  border 
on  the  Pacific  Ocean  1 

4.  We  have  learned  that  in  places  the  land  shoots  out  into  the 
ocean ;  so  the  oceans  must  break  into  the  land.  These  inbreakings,  or 
arms  of  the  sea,  have  different  names. 

5.  If  the  ocean  runs  well  up  into  the  interior  of  the  continent,  so 
that  a  great  sheet  of  water  is  almost  surrounded  by  land,  it  is  called  a 
Sea  ;  but  if  the  sheet  of  water  is  more  open,  it  is  called  a  Gulf,  or  Bay. 
There  is  another  division  of  water  called  a  Strait.  The  word  "  strait " 
means  literally  a  narrow  passage,  and  a  strait  is  a  narrow  passage  of 
water  connecting  two  larger  bodies  of  water. 

6.  \Teacher  pointing  to  the  Mediterranean  Sea  on  the  map.]  Here 
is  a  great  inbreaking  of  tlie  Atlantic  Ocean,  called  the  Mediterranean 
Sea.  Is  this  sheet  of  water  nearly  surrounded  by  land  ?  Here  [pointing 
to  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar]  is  a  narrow  passage  of  water  connecting  tlie 
Mediterranean  Sea  with  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  What  is  such  a  passage 
called  1  Here  [pointing  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico]  is  another  great  inbreak- 
ing of  the  ocean ;  it  is  as  much  enclosed  by  land  as  is  the  Caribbean 
Sea,  yet  it  is  not  called  a  sea,  but  a  gulf. 

7.  Now,  there  are  bodies  or  sheets  of  water  of  such  a  kind  that  they 
are  entirely  enclosed  by  the  land.  We  may  call  such  a  body  of  water 
an  inland  body  of  water.     It  is  termed  a  Lake. 

8.  Did  you  ever  see  a  lake  f  What  is  the  lake  nearest  us  ?  Is  it 
large  or  small  1  What  lakes  do  you  know  of  in  this  State  ?  [The 
teacher  wiU  do  well  to  point  out  on  the  hemisphere  map  the  Great 
Lakes  of  North  America,  and  other  important  lakes.] 

9.  There  is  another  sort  of  inland  body  of  water  which  flows  through 
the  land.  What  is  such  a  body  called  ]  What  river  is  near  this  place  ? 
Is  it  large  or  small  ]    Where  does  it  risel     Into  what  does  it  flow  ? 

10.  Pupils  may  now  copy  this  table  on  their  slates  :  — 

Seas-  f  I^ 

Gulfs,  or  Bays.         WtaoUy  Inland   .    •  I  p- 

I  Straits.  ^ 


Partly  Inland 


I-/akes. 
Rivers. 


II.    FOR    RECITATION. 

1.  The  waters  of  the  earth's  surface  comprise  two  divisions, — 
the  Ocean,  and  various  inland  bodies  and  streams. 

2.  The  Ocean  is  the  great  continuous  body  of  salt  water  sur- 
rounding the  globe;  it  has  five  grand  divisions. 

3.  A  sea  is  a  body  of  salt  water  smaller  than  an  ocean,  and 
more  or  less  surrounded  by  land. 

Note.  —  A  sea  is,  properly  speaking,  always  a  part  of  some  ocean. 

4.  A  gulf,  or  bay,  is  a  body  of  water  extending  into  the  land. 
Alinor  indentations  are  inlets,  coves,  fiords,  havens,  harbors,  roadsteads. 

5.  A  strait  is  a  uari'ow  passage  of  water  connecting  two  larger 
bodies  of  water. 

A  channel  is  a  wide  strait.     A  sound  is  a  shallow  strait. 

6.  The  inland  waters  are  rivers  and  lakes. 

7.  A  river  is  a  large  stream  of  fresh  water  flowing  into  the 
ocean  or  some  other  body  of  water. 

The  source  of  a  river  is  where  it  rises  :  this  is  usually  a  spring.  The  waters  of  a 
spring  make  a  brook,  or  creek,  and  many  of  these  Itead-walers  unite  to  form  a  river. 

The  bed  of  a  river  is  the  channel  formed  by  its  watei-s. 

The  banks  are  the  portions  of  land  bordering  on  each  side  of  a  river.  A  bank  is 
called  the  rigid  or  the  left  according  as  it  is  on  the  right  or  left  of  a  person  looking 
down  stream. 

The  mouth  of  a  river  is  where  it  flows  into  some  other  body  of  water. 

Tributaries  are  the  branches  of  a  larger  stream  ;  and  the  place  where  two  streams 
unite  is  called  their  confluerux. 

8.  A  river-system  is  a  great  river  with  its  tributaries,  or  a  set  of 
rivers  flowing  into  the  same  body  of  water. 

9.  A  lake  is  an  inland  body  of  water  filling  a  depression  in  the 
land.     Some  salt-water  lakes  are  called  seas  ;  as  the  Caspian  Sea. 

10.  An  ocean-current  is  a  stream  of  salt  water  flowing  through 
the  sea ;  as  the  Gulf  Stream,  the  Japan  CuiTent. 

IL  Correspondences.  —  The  earth's  surface  is  divided  into  land 
and  water,  and  the  parts  of  each  correspond,  thus :  — 


Land 


and 


VTater. 


A  carUinerU  is.  one  of  the  grand  land- 
masses  of  the  earth. 

An  island  is  land  wholly  surrounded 
by  water. 

A  cape  is  a  portion  of  land  jutting 
out  into  the  sea. 

A  peninsula  is  land  almost  sur- 
rounded by  water. 

An  isthmus  is  a  neck  of  land  join- 
ing two  larger  portions. 

A  coast,  or  seaboard,  is  that  part 
of  a  continent  or  of  an  island  which 
'  lies  next  the  water. 


Aji  ocean  is  one  of  the  grand  di- 
visions of  the  Great  Ocean. 

A  lake  is  water  wholly  surrounded 
by  land. 

A  bay  is  a  portion  of  water  extend- 
ing into  the  land. 

A  gulf  or  sea  is  water  almost  sur- 
rounded by  land. 

A  strait  is  a  narrow  passage  of  water 
joining  two  larger  portions. 

That  part  of  the  sea  which  lies  near 
the  coast  of  a  country  is  called  the 
coast  waters  of  that  country. 


SYNOPSIS  FOE  KEVIEW.  — MODELS  FOR  DESCRIPTION. 


11 


Lamii. 


DiTisions  of  the  Earth's  Surface.. . 


Water. 


TOPICAL   SYNOPSIS   FOR   REVIEW. 

rEitent f  Continents. 

\  Islands. 

{Peninsulas. 
Capes. 
Isthmuses. 


.  Relief-forms . 


The  Ocean. . 


.  Inland  Waters . 


Lowlands |  Plains. 

\  Valleys. 


Highlands, 
r  Atlantic 


I 


f  Plateaus. 
Mountains. , 

r  Seas. 


f'^!'^'^-          «^^SL!      Bays,  or  Gulfs. 
I  Indian,  etc.  J  I  straits 


J  Chains,  or  Ranges. 
I  Systems. 


{Channels. 
Sounds. 


Rivers J  Main  Streams. 

Tributaries. 

Lakes {^"'^^ 

\Salt 


MODELS   FOR  DESCRIBING   THE   DIVISIONS   OP   LAND  AND   WATER. 


l.-A  GRAND  DIVISION. 

State  what  part  of  either  continent  it  forms. 

Examples.  —  Worth  America  forms  the  northern  part  of  the  Western  Continent. 
Europe  forma  the  northwestern  part  of  the  Eastern  Continent. 

».— A  COUNTRY. 

State  in  what  part  of  what  grand  division  it  is,  and  bound  it. 

Example.  — The  VnlteA  state*  is  in  the  middle  part  of  North  America,  and  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  on  the  east  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
on  the  south  by  the  Chilf  of  Mexico  and  Mexico,  and  on  the  vxst  by  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

S.-AN  ISI^AND. 

State  its  direction  ftom  the  nearest  coast  or  larger  island,  and  tell 
what  body  or  bodies  of  water  surround  it. 

Examples.  —  Cuba  is  south  of  the  United  States,  and  is  surrownded  by  the  Atlan- 
tie  Ocean,  the  Caribbean  Sea,  and  the  Oulf  of  Mexico.  tTamatea  is  south  of  Cuba, 
and  is  surrounded  by  the  Caribbean  Sea. 

4. -A  pi:ninsci.a. 

State  fi-om  what  part  of  what  country  it  projects,  and  what  waters 
nearly  surround  it. 

Example.  —  Florida  projects  from  the  southeastern  part  of  the  United  States,  and 
is  nearly  surrounded  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

S.-AN  ISTHMUS. 

State  what, countries  it  connects,  and  what  bodies  of  water  it  lies 
between. 

Example.  —  The  isthmus  of  Panama/  connects  North  and  South  America,  and 
lies  between  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

6.-A  CAPE. 

State  {1*001  what  country  or  coast  it  projects,  and  into  what  body 
of  water. 

Example.  —  Cape  Halterat  projects  from  the  eastern  coast  of  the  United  States 
into  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 

7. -A  MOUNTAIN. 

State  in  what  part  of  what  country  it  is  situated,  and  (if  a  range 
or  system)  state  its  direction. 

Examples.  —  Mount  Popoeatapell'  is  in  the  southern  part  of  Mexico.  The 
Alleghany  Mountains  are  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States,  and  extend  from 
northeast  to  southwest. 


8.-AN  OCEAN. 

State  its  direction  from  the  coasts  it  washes. 

Example.  —  Xlie  Atlantic  Ocean  is  east  of  North  and  South  America,  and  west 
of  Europe  and  Africa. 

9.— A  SEA,   GITLF,   OR  BAY. 

State  its  direction  from  the  nearest  coast,  and  with  what  body  of 
water  it  is  connected,  or  of  what  water  it  forms  an  inbreaking. 

Examples.  —  The  Mediterranean  Sea  is  south  of  Europe,  and  is  connected  with 
the  Atlantic  Ocean,  of  which  it  is  an  inbreaking.  The  Oulf  of  Mexico  is  south  of 
the  United  States,  and  is  connected  vjilh  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  of  which  it  is  an  inbreak- 
ing. The  Say  of  Biscay  is  west  of  France  and  north  of  Spain,  and  forms  an 
inbreaking  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 

10.— A  STRAIT,  CHANNEI.,  OR  SOUND. 

State  between  what  countries  or  islands  it  is,  and  what  bodies  of 
water  it  connects. 

Examples. —  Tiie  strait  of  Gibraltar  is  between  Spain  and  Morocco,  and  con- 
nects the  Mediterranean  Sea  with  t/ie  Atlantic  Ocean.  Mozambique'  [beek] 
Channel  is  between  Africa  and  the  island  of  Madagascar,  and  connects  different 
parts  of  the  Indian,  Ocean. 

11. -A  I.AKE. 

State  in  what  part  of  what  country  it  is  situated,  and  give  its  outlet, 
if  any  is  named. 

Example.  —  lafcc  Ontario  is  in  the  northern  part  of  the  United  States,  and 
the  St.  Lawrence  Kiver  is  its  outlet. 

IS.-A  BrVER. 

State  where  it  rises,  its  direction,  and  into  what  body  of  water  it 
flows. 

Example.  —  The  MUsUHppi  niver  rises  in  lUu/ea  Lake,  in  Minnesota,  and 
flows  in  a  southerly  direction  into  the  Chilf  of  Mexico. 

18.-A  cmr. 

State  its  location,  and  whether  on  the  seaboard  (or  lake-shore)  or  in 
the  interior. 

Examples.  —  JV«ti>  Tork  is  a  seaboard  city  in  the  southern  part  of  New  York. 
Chicago  is  in  the  northeastern  part  of  Illinois,  on  the  southern  shore  of  Lake 
Michigan. 


13 


U  := 


// 


STUDIES    ON    THE 

NoTK.— This  nup  U  a  representation  of  a  terrestrial  globe  so  turned  as  to  show  the  greatest 
poasible  amount  of  land  at  one  view;  —  and  in  fact  it  places  before  the  eye  the  whole  of  the 
land  surface  of  the  earth  with  the  exception  of  Oceanica  and  the  southern  half  uf  South  America. 
As  a  corrective  of  the  confusion  of  ideas  into  which  pupils  tmacquaiuted  with  the  principles  of 
map-projection  are  likeljr  to  fall  from  the  study  of  the  ordinary  hemisphere  map,  it  will  be 
found  very  valuable.  The  teacher  should  give  the  chiss  repeated  exercises,  oral  and  written,  on 
this  map. 

I. —  !•  In  what  direction  ia  north  on  this  map?  Ans.  Toward  the  North  Pole. 
2.  What  grand  divisions  of  land  are  crossed  by  the  Equator?  8.  What  grand 
divisions  of  land  are  crossed  by  the  Tropic  of  Cancer  ?  —  by  the  Tropic  of  Capri- 
corn ?  4.  What  part  of  Africa  is  crossed  by  the  prime  meridian  (Greenwich), 
marked  0  on  the  Equator? 

II.— 1.  What  grand  divisions  east  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean?  S.  What  grand 
divisions  enclose  the  Atlantic  Ocean?    8.  What  ocean  south  of  Asia?    4.  What 


GLOBULAR   MAP. 

lands  enclose  the  Indian  Ocean?  6.  What  ocean  between  Asia  and  America? 
6.  What  name  is  given  to  the  water  around  the  North  Tole?  7.  What  strait 
connects  the  Mediterranean  Sea  with  the  Atlantic  Ocean? —  Behring  Sea  with  the 
North  Polar  Sea?    8.  What  lands  enclose  the  North  Polar  Sea,  or  Arctic  Ocean? 

Ill- — l-  In  what  direction  is  North  America  from  Europe? — Africa  from 
South  America  ?  2.  Is  any  large  city  on  the  Atlantic  coast  of  North  America  as 
far  north  as  London  ?  8.  The  parallel  of  latitude  which  traverses  Spain  is  near 
what  great  cities  in  our  country  ?  4.  What  large  island  of  the  West  Indies  is  just 
south  of  the  Tropic  of  Cancer?    8.  What  city  in  Hindostan  is  near  this  circle? 

rV. — Over  what  waters  would  a  ship  sail  in  going  from  New  York  to  Aspin- 
wall  ?  —  from  Panama  to  San  Francisco  ?  —  from  Boston  to  Bombay  ?  —  from  San 
Francisco  to  Yokohama!  —  from  Liverpool  ma  Suez  Canal  to  Hong  Kong? 


—v. 


14 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


TOPIC     IV. 
CONDITIONS    OF    CLIMATE. 

I.    ORAL   OUTLINE. 

L  Is  it  sometimes  hot  where  we  Hve?  Is  it  sometimes  ooldl  Do 
you  know  of  any  part  of  the  world  where  it  is  constantly  quite  hot? 

—  any  place  where  it  is  constantly  quite  cold  ? 

2.  What  pupils  have  seen  a  thermometer  ]  What  degree  of  heat  did 
it  mark  the  last  time  you  looked  at  it? 

3.  First  important  fact.  —  The  amount  of  heat  at  a  place  is  con- 
nected  WITH  THE   CLIMATE  OF   THE   PLACE. 

4.  In  our  part  of  the  country  is  there  much  rain?  During  what 
season  does  it  fall  ?     Does  it  rain  during  the  winter  months  ? 

[The  teacher  should  point  on  the  hemisphere-map  to  the  basin  of  the 
Amazon,  and  state  that  immense  quantities  of  rain  fall  there ;  to  Cali- 
fornia, and  state  that  rain  falls  there  only  during  what,  on  the  Atlantic 
coast,  are  called  the  winter  months,  —  December  to  April ;  to  the  Utah 
basin  and  the  African  Sahara,  stating  that  no  rain,  or  next  to  none, 
ever  falls  there.] 

6.   Second  important  fact. — The  amount  op  rain  ^t  a  place   is 

CONNECTED   WITH    THE    CLIMATE    OF   THE    PLACE. 

6.  Have  we  cold  winds  in  this  place?  Do  you  know  from  where 
they  blow?     Have  we  warm  winds? 

7.  What  causes  people  to  resort  to  the  sea-shore  in  summer?  Do 
you  know  whether  in  winter  it  is  warmer  or  colder  at  a  place  on  the 
sea-coast  than  it  is  at  an  inland  place  in  the  same  latitude? 

8.  The  British  Isles  \the  teacher  pointing  to  them],  which  have  a  mild 
climate,  are  in  nearly  the  same  latitude  as  Labrador  [the  teacher  pointing 
to  it],  which  is  very  cold  and  barren.  The  cause  of  the  mild  weather 
of  the  British  Isles  is  a  warm  wind  carried  there  from  an  ocean-current 
called  the  Gulf  Stream. 

9.  Third  important  fact.  —  The  nature  of  the  winds  that  pre- 
vail  AT   a    PLACE    IS   connected    WITH   THE    CLIMATE   OP   THE   PLACE. 

10.  How  many  seasons  have  we  in  this  locality  ?  On  the  Pacific 
coast  of  the  United  States  there  are  but  two  seasons.  Have  you  ever 
heard  of  any  part  of  the  earth  where  perpetual  spring  reigns  ?  Do  you 
suppose  there  can  be  more  than  two  seasons  in  the  Arctic  regions  ? 
Which  season  do  you  think  must  be  the  longer,  the  summer  or  the 
winter  ? 

11.  Fourth  important  fact. — The  character  of  the  seasons  at  a 

PLACE   IS   CONNECTED   WITH   THE   CLIMATE   OP   THE   PLACE. 

12.  What  then  is  meant  by  the  climate  of  a  place  ?  The  climate  of 
a  place  means  its  weather-conditions,  in  regard  to  heat,  moisture,  winds, 
and  seasons. 

II.    ORAL   OUTLINE,  — CoiKtntKtl. 

1.  We  have  learned  the  names  of  the  zones  :  what  are  they  i  What 
is  the  nature  of  the  Torrid  Zone  as  regards  heat  1  —  of  the  Frigid  Zones  ? 

—  of  the  Temperate  Zones? 

2.  The  heat  throughout  the  year  is  greatest  at  or  near  the  Equator, 
and  diminishes  gradually  toward  the  Poles.  Thus  we  see  that  the 
climate  of  a  place  depends  upon  the  latitude  of  the  place.  But  now  we 
must  inquire  if  there  are  any  exceptions  to  this  general  rule  of  climate. 

3.  Did  you  ever  on  a  hot  summer  day  climb  to  the  top  of  a  moun- 
tain?   What  change  in  the  air  did  you  find? 

4.  [The  teacher  pointing  on  the  map  to  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon 
River.]  Here  is  a  part  of  the  earth  that  is  on  the  Equator.  What  zone, 
then,  is  it  in  ?     What  kind  of  climate  would  you  expect  to  find  there  ? 

5.  Let  us  now  sail  up  the  Amazon  for  two  or  three  thousand  miles, 
till  we  come  to  the  foot  of  this  great  mountain  range,  the  Andes.  [The 
teacher  shoudng  it.]  We  are  still  in  the  Torrid  Zone,  and  still  near  the 
Equator.  Will  not  the  climate  still  be  the  same  ?  Now  let  us  ascend 
from  the  base  of  the  Andes.  As  we  go  up  we  iihall  find  the  weather 
becoming  less  hot,  just  as  we  did  when  we  went  up  into  a  mountain 
region  in  our  own  country  on  a  hot  summer  day.     As  we  proceed,  the 


air  becomes  cool,  cooler,  cold,  colder,  till  finally  we  find  ourselves  amid 
snows  that  last  all  the  year  round. 

6.  What  do  we  gather  from  these  facts  ?  We  gather  that  the  tem- 
perature of  a  place  depends,  not  on  its  latitude  alone,  but  on  its  height, 
or  as  it  is  called,  its  altitude.  [Let  the  teacher  call  attention  to  any  local 
facts  that  illustrate  this.] 

7.  Do  you  think  that  winds  blowing  from  the  north  must  generally 
be  cold  winds  or  warm  winds  1  —  Blowing  from  the  south  ?  Suppose  a 
country  is  so  situated  that  there  is  nothing  to  break  the  force  of  the  icy 
winds  coming  from  the  Arctic  region,  should  you  expect  that  country 
to  be  cold,  even  if  it  was  pretty  far  south?  [The  teacher  pointing  to 
Southern  Siberia.]  That  is  the  case  in  Siberia.  On  the  other  hand, 
what  would  you  expect  to  find  in  the  case  of  a  country  exposed  to  cur- 
rents of  air  flowing  from  the  Equatorial  region  ? 

8.  What  do  W3  gather  from  these  facts  ?  We  gather  that  the  climate 
of  a  place  depends,  not  on  its  latitude  and  its  altitude  alone,  but  on  the 
character  of  the  winds  tlmt  prevail  there. 

9.  We  have  seen  that  Great  Britain  has  a  mild  climate  :  why  has  it  a 
mild  climate  ?  Now,  St.  Petersburg  in  Russia  [the  teacher  pointing  to  it 
on  the  map]  is  but  little  farther  north  than  Great  Britain,  yet  at  St. 
Petersburg  the  weather  is  exceedingly  cold  during  eight  months  of 
the  year.     Is  Great  Britain  near  the  ocean  ?     Is  St.  Petersburg  ? 

10.  What  do  we  gather  from  this  fact  ?  We  gather  that  the  climate 
of  a  place  depends,  not  on  its  latitude,  altitude,  and  prevailing  winds 
alone,  but  on  its  nearness  to  or  remoten,ess  from  the  ocean. 

Note.  —  From    all    these    facts  we 


leam  that  the  zones  marked  on  maps 
and  globes  teach  us  the  climate  of 
places  only  in  a  very  general  way.  The 
actual  belts  of  climate  are  much  more 
correctly  shown  in  this  diagram.  Tlie 
lines  crossing  the  map  indicate  that 
the  places  crossed  by  each  line  have 
the  same  average  amount  of  heat  in 
the  course  of  a  year.  They  are  called 
isothermal  lines,  or  isothermals  (from 
two  Greek  words  signifying  egua!  heat- 
lines).  If  the  degree  of  heat  at  any 
given  place  depended  simply  on  the 
latitude  of  the  place,  the  Tropics  and 
Polar  Circles  would  correctly  mark 
the  boundaries  of  climate;  but  since 
it  depends  on  other  conditions  as  well. 
the  lines  marking  the  actual  belts  of 
climate  vary  in  direction. 

III.    FOR    RECITATION. 

L  The  Climate  of  a  country  means  its  weather-conditions,  in 
regard  to  heat,  moisture,  winds,  and  seasons. 

2.  General  Law.  —  The  heat  is  greatest  near  the  Equator  and 
diminishes  gradually  toward  the  Poles ;  in  other  words,  the  climate 
of  a  place  depends  in  general  on  its  latitvde.  But  this  general 
law  is  greatly  modified  by  other  conditions. 

3.  First  Modification.  —  The  altitude  of  a  place  affects  its  tem- 
perature. High  mountains  and  plateaus,  even  in  the  Torrid  Zone, 
have  a  cool  or  cold  climate. 

Explanation.  —  The  lower  and  denser  strata  of  the  atmosphere  absorb  the 
greatest  amount  of  the  sun's  heat,  and  are  necessarily  the  warmest.  For  every  one 
hundred  yards  of  perpendicular  ascent  there  is  a  decrease  of  one  degree  in  the  tem- 
perature ;  hence,  even  at  the  Equator,  by  ascending  to  the  height  of  about  16,000 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea  we  reach  the  snow-line,  where  winter  is  perpetual. 

4.  Second  Modification.  —  The  prevailing  winds  at  a  given  place 
modify  the  climate  of  the  place.  Currents  of  air  flowing  from  the 
Equatorial  region  are  hot ;  currents  of  air  flowing  from  the  Polar 
regions  are  cold.  Hence,  if  we  suppose  that,  of  two  places  in  the 
Northern  Hemisphere  and  in  the  same  latitude,  the  one  is  exposed 
to  northerly  winds  and  the  other  to  southerly  winds,  the  former 
win  be  cooler  than  the  latter. 


PLANT-LIFE,  OR  VEGETATION. 


15 


6.  Third  Modification.  —  Sea-winds  modify  the  climate  of  places, 
giving  them  cooler  summers  and  warmer  winters  than  inland 
places  in  the  same  latitude. 

EXPLANATIOK.  —  The  heat  absorbed  into  the  land  is  not  taken  in  to  a  great  depth, 
and  it  is  given  off  readily.  The  heat  absorbed  into  the  water  is  taken  in  to  a  great 
depth,  and  it  is  given  off  slowly.  The  ocean  is  thus  a  great  storehouse  of  heat.  In 
summer  the  air  over  the  ocean  is  cooler  than  that  over  the  land,  because  the  ocean 
radiates  its  heat  more  .slowly  tluui  the  land.  In  winter  the  air  over  the  ocean  is 
warmer  than  that  over  the  land,  because  the  laud  has  then  lost  its  heat  by  rapid 
radiation  while  the  ocean  has  preserved  its  heat. 

6.  Fourth  Modification.  —  The  climate  of  a  place  is  modified  by 

the  length  of  the  day. 

Explanation.  —  More  heat  is  communicated  in  a  long  day  than  is  carried  off  in 
the  succeeding  short  night,  so  tliat  heat  continues  to  accumulate  during  the  summer 
season.  In  the  Polar  regions,  notwithstanding  the  obliquity  of  the  sun's  rays,  the 
heat  during  the  short  summer  is  very  considerable,  for  the  reason  that,  the  day 
being  continuous  for  weeks  or  months,  the  heat  accumulates.  This  accumulation 
accounts  for  the  fact  tliat  the  summer  heat  in  New  York,  Chicago,  and  St.  Louis 
is  often  more  intense  than  in  New  Orleans  or  Havana,  —  places  near  the  Equator, 
but  with  shorter  days. 


TOPIC    V. 
PLANT-LIFE,    OR  VEGETATION. 

I.    ORAL   OUTLINE. 

1.  What  pupils  have  ever  cultivated  a  garden  ]  You  have  all  eaten 
oranges :  does  this  fruit  grow  in  our  part  of  the  country  t  [In  most 
parts  of  the  United  States  pupUs  will  reply  in  the  negative.] 

2.  Do  you  know  any  way  in  which  we  ca7i  grow  oranges  here  1  Did 
you  ever  see  an  orange-tree  in  a  hot-house  ?     Do  you  know  where  most 

.of  our  oranges  come  from"!     Is  not  the  climate  of  Cuba  and  Florida 
somewhat  like  that  of  a  hot-house  1 

3.  We  cannot  grow  oranges  in  the  open  air  because  the  amoimt  of 
summer  heat  is  not  enough.  Can  we  grow  pine-apples  ]  —  bananas  1 
—  sugar-cane  1  Why  not  1  Name  some  other  fruits  or  food-plants  that 
we  cannot  grow. 

4.  What  do  we  learn  from  this  1  We  learn  that  to  grow  these  fruits 
and  food-plants  a  lavffe  amount  of  summer  heat  is  necessary. 

6.  There  is  great  heat  in  the  African  desert,  or  Sahara ;  but  do  we 
find  much  vegetation  there  1  Why  not  ?  Is  there  anything  which  the 
African  desert  lacks  and  which  the  luxuriant  plains  of  South  America 
have  1  What  do  we  conclude  ?  That  luxuriant  vegetation  requires  not 
only  heat,  but  moisture.  Give  some  example  of  plants  that  cannot  be 
produced  except  in  lands  having  much  heat  and  moisture.  Coffee. 
Yes.  What  others  can  you  name  1  The  india-rubber  tree,  the  various 
spices.     What  others? 

6.  The  eastern  half  of  the  United  States  has  an  abundance  of  rain ; 
the  western  half,  with  few  exceptions,  has  very  little  :  what  difference 
as  regards  plants  may  we  expect  to  find  in  these  two  regions  1 

7.  In  what  zones  is  the  least  amount  of  heat  1  What  may  you  ex- 
pect in  regard  to  vegetation  in  the  Frigid  Zones  1  Do  you  suppose  any 
of  our  grains  or  fruits  grow  there  1  Name  almost  the  only  trees  that 
grow  there.  The  willow,  birch,  and  alder.  To  what  is  vegetation  in 
the  Polar  regions  confined]     To  mosses  and  lichens. 

8.  In  what  zone  do  we  live  1  Is  any  part  of  North  America  in  the 
Torrid  Zonel  Name  all  the  kinds  of  grain  that  grow  in  the  State 
in  which  you  reside ;  —  all  the  kinds  of  vegetables.  Name  the  kinds 
of  fruit  that  grow  in  your  part  of  the  country ;  —  the  wild  berries. 
Name  all  the  kinds  of  trees  growing  in  your  part  of  the  country.  Name 
five  garden  flowers;  —  five  wild  flowers.  Name  two  kinds  of  grasses 
which  the  farmers  raise.  Do  wo  grow  tolacco  herel  —  rice?  —  the 
grape  1  —  cotton  1  —  sugar-cane  1  —  sorghum  ]  —  broom-corn  1 

9.  Do  you  suppose  that  the  vegetation  of  the  South  Temperate  Zone 
considerably   resembles  that  of  our  own  zone]    Why  does  it  do  sol 


Name  from  the  hemisphere-map  three  coimtries  or  parts  of  countries 
that  are  in  the  South  Temperate  Zone. 

10.  Have  you  ever  noticed  on  climbing  a  lofty  mountain  that  the 
trees,  grass,  etc.,  become  stunted  and  scanty  as  you  ascend?  Taking  into 
account  the  effect  of  altitude  on  the  amount  of  heat,  how  may  you 
explain  this  facti  What  do  you  conclude  from  this  in  regard  to  the 
character  of  the  vegetation  in  very  elevated  regions'?  Now  remember 
this  fact :  if  we  go  to  the  base  of  the  Andes,  on  the  Equator,  and  ascend 
16,000  feet,  we  reach  the  line  of  eternal  snow,  and  we  pass  through  all 
the  belts  of  vegetation  from  the  Tropical  to  the  Polar.  Hence,  in  an 
ascent  of  three  miles  from  the  level  of  the  sea  we  observe  changes 
much  like  those  that  we  should  see  in  a  journey  of  6,000  miles,  from 
the  Equator  to  the  North  Pole. 

II.    FOR    RECITATION. 

L  Vegetation  signifies  plant-life  iu  its  manifold  forms. 

Note.  —  The  term  flora  is  often  employed  to  designate  the  plant-life  of  a  region  ; 
thus  we  speak  of  the  flora  of  the  United  States,  ot  Australia,  etc.,  meaning  all  the 
species  of  plants  in  these  regions. 

2.  Conditions  of  Plant-Life.  —  Plants  depend  for  their  continu- 
ance on  certain  physical  conditions.  The  conditions  that  regulate 
plant-life  are  heat  (with  light)  and  moisture.  A  little  more  heat 
or  a  little  more  cold,  a  little  more  moisture  or  a  little  more 
drought,  and  the  plant  flourishes  or  decays.  Illustration  :  the 
palms  of  the  Tropics  would  dwarf  and  die  in  the  Temperate  Zone. 

8.  Distribution.  —  The  yearly  supply  of  heat  and  moisture  is 
greatest  in  the  Equatorial  region ;  hence,  vegetation  is  most  luxuri- 
ant within  the  Tropics,  and  declines  as  we  proceed  toward  either 
Pole.     This  is  the  law  in  its  most  general  statement. 

4.  Zones.  —  Different  regions  of  the  earth  present  different  con- 
ditions of  climate ;  climate  controls  plants ;  hence,  different  regions 
have  each  their  own  distinct  vegetation.  We  may  mark  four 
zones  of  plant-life,  —  the  Tropical,  Warm-Temperate,  Cold-Tem- 
perate, and  Arctic  Zones. 

6.  The  Tropical  Zone  corresponds  nearly  with  the  Torrid  Zone  as 
marked  on  maps  and  globes.  It  includes  all  countries  where  frost 
is  never  in  the  ground. 

6.  The  Arctic  Zone  (confined  to  the  Northern  Hemisphere)  in- 
cludes all  known  countries  where  frost  is  never  out  of  the  ground. 
Geographically  it  comprises  the  North  Frigid  Zone  and  parts  of 
the  North  Temperate  Zone. 

7.  Temperate  Zones.  —  The  middle  belt  which  is  between  these 

two  extremes,  and  which  may  be  called  the  Temperate  Zone  of 

vegetation,   is  divided   into   two   zones,  —  the  Warm-Temperate 

Zone,  which  adjoins  the  Tropical,  and  the  Cold-Temperate  Zone, 

which  adjoins  the  Arctic  Zone. 

Note.  —  In  a  general  way  it  may  be  said  that  the  highest  latitudes  in  which 
Indian  com  can  be  grown  mark  the  dividing  line  between  the  two  zones. 


A     TtlUHIUAL    SCENE. 


8.  Tropical  Zone.  —  Characteristic  plants  of  this  zone  are  palms, 
bananas,  bread-fruit,  pine-apples,  rice,  coffee,  the  sugar-cane,  spices, 
opium  (from  the  poppy),  indigo,  and  caoutchouc.     The  Equatorial 


16 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


parts  of  this  zone  are  further  marked  by  canes,  bamboos,  large 
and  showy  flowers,  and  gigantic  parasitic  plants. 

9.  Warm-Temperate  Zone.  —  This  zone  is  the  land  of  the  vine 
and  olive,  the  laurel  and  myrtle.  It  has  numerous  kinds  of  de- 
ciduous forest-trees  (those  which  shed  their  leaves  in  autumn),  as 
the  oak,  chestnut,  ash,  maple,  cottonwood,  etc.  As  products  of 
cultivation,  tea,  cotton,  and  tobacco  may  be  noted.  The  chief 
food-plants  are  maize,  wheat,  rice,  and  potatoes.  The  greater  part 
of  our  own  country  is  within  this  zone. 

10.  Cold-Temperate  Zone.  —  The  line  of  the  cultivation  of  wheat 
includes  the  warmer  parts  of  this  zone ;  but  its  characteristic  food- 
plants  are  barley,  rye,  oats,  buckwheat,  and  potatoes.  Flax  and 
hemp  are  grown.  Among  representative  forest-trees  are  the  pine, 
maple,  beech,  birch,  spruce,  and  larch. 

11.  Arctic  Zone.  —  This  zone  (which  is  confined  to  the  Northern 
Hemisphere)  is  marked  by  the  dwarf  birch,  alder,  and  willow.  Its 
more  temperate  parts  yield  barley,  turnips,  and  Iceland  moss. 
The  Polar  region  produces  no  food-plants,  nor  indeed  any  kind 
of  vegetation  except  mosses,  lichens,  etc. 

12.  Effect  of  Altitude.  —  Temperature  decreases  as  we  ascend 
from  the  level  of  the  sea  into  the  higher  regions  of  the  atmos- 
phere; hence  at  the  Equator  the  traveler  who  ascends  a  lofty 
mountain  passes  through  belts  of  vegetation  similar  to  those 
that  mark  the  earth's  surface  from  the  Equator  to  the  Poles. 

"  Nature  has  permitted  the  native  of  the  Torrid  Zone  to  behold  all  the  vegetable 
forms  of  the  earth  without  q^uitting  hia  own  clime."  — Humboldt. 


SC£N£.    lU     THt    AllCTlU    litLiiu;.. 


TOPIC    YT. 
ANIMAL   LIFE. 

I.    ORAL    OUTLINE. 

\^^  The  teacher  ehonld,  under  this  head,  engage  the  pupils  in  a  conversational  lesson  on 
the  animals  they  have  seen  in  menageries  and  pnhlic  parks,  eliciting  whatever  they  know 
respecting  the  size,  appearance,  habits,  locality,  etc.  of  the  several  animals  named. 

Model.  [A  pupil  mentions  that  he  has  seen  a  camel  in  a  menagerie.] 
The  camel  is  a  beast  of  burden.  What  other  beasts  of  burden  can  you 
name  1  The  horse,  ox,  elephant.  What  of  the  camel's  head  ?  Its  legs  ? 
The  camel  is  a  ruminant.  [Let  the  teacher  explain  this.]  What  adapts 
this  animal  to  traversing  deserts  ?  In  what  localities  are  camels  found  ? 
Would  the  horse  or  mule  be  as  useful  in  such  localities  ?  Why  not  'i 
Would  the  camel  be  as  useful  in  this  country  or  in  Europe  as  the  horse 
or  mide  ■?    Why  not  ?  etc 

II.    FOR    RECITATION. 

1.  General  Law. — Animals,  like  plants,  are  influenced  by  phys- 
ical conditions,  and  especially  by  climate  and  food.  The  animals 
of  the  Torrid  Zone  excel  those  of  the  Temperate  Zones  in  number, 
size,  strength,  and  beauty,  while  those  of  the  Temperate  Zones 
surpass  the  animals  of  the  Arctic  regions.  We  may  mark  the 
following  three  zones  of  animal  life  —  the  Tropical  Zone,  the  Tem- 
perate Zones,  and  the  Arctic  Zone. 


ZONtL^    Of    ANIMAL    LIFE. 


2.  The  Tropical  Zone  is  the  home  of  such  animals  as  the  lion, 
tiger,  and  panther;  apes,  monkeys,  and  gorillas;  the  giraffe  and 
zebra ;  the  elephant,  rhinoceros,  hippopotamus ;  the  crocodile  and 
boa ;  the  flamingo,  peacock,  parrot,  and  bird  of  paradise. 

3.  The  Temperate  Zones  are  the  home  of  the  following,  among 
other  animals:    1.  Domestic  Animals:   the  horse,  camel,  llama,- 
ox,  sheep,  goat,  hog,  dog;  the  hen,  turkey,  goose,  etc.     2.  Wild 
Animals  :  the  bear,  buffalo,  deer,  kangaroo,  wolf,  fox,  beaver ;  the 
eagle,  hawk,  jay,  etc. 

4.  The  Arctic  Zone  numbers  among  its  leading  animals  the 
white  polar-bear,  the  walrus,  seal,  reindeer,  dog,  arctic  fox,  sable, 
ermine,  marten,  auk. 

5.  Belation  of  Animals  and  Plants.  —  There  is  a  remarkable 
relation  between  animals  and  plants.  While  both  breathe  the 
air,  they  live  on  different  elements  of  the  air.  Plants  give  out 
large  quantities  of  oxygen,  and  this  is  the  element  of  the  air 
that  keeps  up  the  "  flame  of  life  "  in  animals.  On  the  other  hand, 
animals  breathe  out  carbonic-acid  gas,  which  is  destructive  to 
animal  life,  but  necessary  to  the  life  of  plants. 

6.  Animals  and  Plants  as  Food.  —  Man  derives  his  food  from 
both  plants  and  animals ;  but  in  the  Torrid  Zone  his  food  is 
mainly  vegetable,  in  the  Frigid  Zones  mainly  animal,  and  in 
the  Temperate  Zones  both  animal  and  vegetable. 

Note.  —  Animal  foods,  and  especially  the  fats^  produce 
heat  in  the  body.  They  are  therefore  the  proper  aliment 
for  the  peoples  of  the  cold  zones ;  and  accordingly  we 
find  that  in  these  zones  a  large  part  of  the  food  used  con- 
sists of  fish,  sea-birds,  the  fat  of  the  seal,  and  the  oil  of 
the  wliale.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  tropical  countries, 
a  hlarul  or  cool  diet  is  necessary  for  health.  In  such 
countries  the  starch  and  sugar  producing  substances,  as 
rice,  wheat-flour,  Indian-corn,  fruits,  etc.,  are  the  fitting 
food.  Rice,  which  is  native  to  the  Torrid  Zone  and  is  an 
excellent  article  of  food  in  hot  climates,  is  the  cereal 
most  extensively  grown.  It  furnishes  the  principal  sup- 
port of  at  least  one  third  of  the  human  family.  In  the 
Temperate  Zones,  which  alternate  between  great  heat 

and  great  cold,  the  best  condition  of  physical  health  requires  both  animal  and  vegetable  food ;  — 

and  in  the  countries  in  these  zones  the  people  generally  use  a  mixed  diet 


KACES  OF  MEN. 


17 


SECTION  III. -POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

TOPIC    I. 
RACES    OP   MEN. 

I.    ORAL    OUTLINE. 

L  Have  you  ever  seen  an  Indiiin?  Can  you  always  tell  an  Indian 
from  a  white  man  ?  You  can  ;  then  it  must  be  because  the  Indian  has 
some  natural  marks  that  distinguish  him  from  a  white  man.  What  is 
one  of  these  marks?  Red  or  copper  complexion.  Yes.  Another  1 
Long,  straiglit  black  hair.  Yes.  Another?  Another?  These  natural 
marks  are  called  physical  characterutics. 

2.  Have  you  ever  seen  a  Chinaman?  —  a  Japanese?  What  was  his 
complexion?  Hence  we  may  call  the  Cliinese  and  Japanese  the  Yellow 
Race.  They  are  also  called  Mongolians.  Many  peoples  of  Asia  belong 
to  this  race.  How  do  the  eyes  of  a  Mongolian  dilfer  from  those  of  an 
American  ?  Do  the  Chinese  wear  beards  ?  Kow  give  a  connected  state- 
ment of  the  physical  characteristics  of  the  Mongolian  race.  [In  like 
manner  let  the  teacher  draw  from  the  pupils  what  they  know  about  the 
other  races.] 

II.    FOR    RECITATION. 

L  The  races  are  classified  according  to  five  types,  —  the  Cau- 
casian, Mongolian,  Negro  or  African,  Malay,  and  Indian  types. 


2.  The  Caucasian  Baces  are  repre- 
sented by  the  peoples  of  Europe  and 
their  descendants  in  America  and  else- 
where. To  this  type  belong  also  the  Arabs  and  Hindoos.  The 
Caucasians  have  generally  a  fair  complexion  (though  some  repre- 
sentatives are  swarthy),  regidar  features,  soft  flowing  hair,  and  full 
beards.     They  are  the  leaders  in  the  world's  civilization. 


The  Yellow  Bace  is  spread  over  Central  and  Ea.stom  Asia 
(exampUa :  China,  Japan,  Tartary),  and  includes  tlie  sparse  popu- 
lation of  the  Arctic  regions  on  both  continents.  The  Mongolians 
have  an  olive-yellow  complexion,  straight  black  hair,  broad  coun- 
tenance, high  cheek-bones,  and  eyes  set  obliquely.  In  civilization 
they  rank  next  to  the  Caucasians. 

4  The  Kegro  Type  is  spread  over  most  of  Africa,  wliere  it  is 
repre-sented  by  various  tribes.  These  differ  in  many  respects,  but 
are  all  alike  in  having  a  dark  or  black  complexion,  short  crisp 


woolly  hair,  broad  flat  nose,  and  thick  lips.  Most  of  the  African 
tribes  are  in  a  savage  or  barbarous  state.  Several  millions  of 
colored  people  in  the  United  States  (descendants  of  native  Afri- 
cans) have  been  Christianized  and  civilized. 


fW^<  ' 


5.  The  Malays  are  found  in  the  Malayan  Peninsula,  and  in 
many  of  the  islands  of  the  Pacific  Ocean.  They  have  a  brown 
complexion  and  features  considerably  resembling  those  of  the 
Chinese,  but  they  have  generally  straight-set  eyes. 


'.'  ~        6.  The  Indians  are  the 

representatives  of  the  native 
races  of  America.     They  have  a 
cupper-colored  complexion,  rather  regular 
features,  straight  black  hair,  and  scanty 
beard.    They  have  always  shown  but  little  capacity  for  civilization. 

BEFEBENCE    TABI^    OF    RACEa 


Race. 


Physical  Characterisiica. 


Caucasian .  - 


Kongolian 


African.. 


■alay. 


Indian. . . . . 


f*  C'oLOB :  white  t"  swartliy.  Fea- 
TUREf) :  regular.  Hair  ;  waving 
or  curling,    Beauu  :  heavy. 

Color;  olivo-yellow.  Fkaturks: 
faoo  broad  and  flat,  with  high 
chcek'lioncH,  and  Brnall,  black, 
obliquely  set  eyes.  nAtn;  coarse 
aud  BtifT.    IlFARi) :  scanty, 

CoLOB:  brown  to  black.  Pka- 
TURKS  :  flat  nose,  retreating  fore- 
head, ]>roniinent  Jaws,  Hair  : 
short  and  crisp.    Brakd:  scanty. 

Color  :  brown.  Fkaturkh  :  much 
like  MongolianH,  but  wiUi  horl- 
lontolly  set  eyes. 

Color  :  red,  or  copper-hue.  Fra- 
TUREa ;  high  cheek-bones,  pniin- 
Inent  now.  and  black  eyes. 
Hair  :  straight  and  bUck. 
Beard:  aoAnty. 


Bepnaentative  Typea. 


I.<eadiug  EurojHsan  i)eoples 
—  descendants  of  Euro- 
IHyin  colonisU  —  Hin- 
doos, Antbs. 

Chinese— Japanese — Tar- 
tars —  Turks  —  Esqui- 
maux. 


Tribes  of  Central  Aftica 
—  their  desccndanta  In 
America. 

Inhabitant.*  of  Malacca,  of 
East  India  IsLinds,  onti 
most  of  the  isles  of  the 
Faciflc. 

I  ndian  tribes  in  Korth  and 
South  America. 


Nnmban. 


600  millionii. 


I>iO  millions. 


ISO  ralUiona. 


SO  miUtong. 


10  mlllloDS. 


18 


POLITICAL  GEOGEAPHY. 


TOPIC    II. 
"WANTS   OP  MAN. 


I.   ORAL   OUTLINE. 


L  What  is  necessary  to  keep  us  alive  1  [The  teacher  will  draw  out 
the  thought  that  food  is  necessary  to  keep  us  alive.]  How  long  could 
a  person  live  without  food  or  drink  1  Food  is  then  one  of  the  needs, 
or  wants,  of  mankind.  Is  it  a  need  of  the  body  or  of  the  soul  1  Being 
of  the  hody,  we  may  call  food  a  physical  (natural)  need. 

2.  What  other  physical  need  can  you  mention  1  [Let  the  teacher 
elicit  the  statement  that  clothing  is  another  physical  want.]  Could  not 
a  person  get  along  without  clothing?  Could  not  a  person  get  along 
without  clothing  more  readily  in  some  parts  of  the  world  than  in  others  ■? 
[State  that  in  most  parts  of  the  world  inhabited  by  civilized  nations 
clothing  cannot  be  dispensed  with.     "  It  is  cold  that  kills."] 

3.  What  other  physical  want  can  you  think  of?  Houses  to  live  inl 
Yes.     Well,  let  us  call  this  need  the  need  of  shelter. 

4.  We  have  ascertained  that  there  are  three  great  physical  wants  of 
mankind.     What  are  they? 

5.  What  kind  of  food  can  you  name  ?  Beef.  Yes.  Another  ?  Bread. 
Another  ?  Another  ?  [As  probably  animal  and  vegetable  foods  wUl  be 
given  indiscriminately,  the  teacher  should  now  place  the  list  elicited 
from  the  pupils  upon  the  blackboard,  classing  the  articles  as  animal 
and  vegetable  foods.  Natural  substances,  as  wheat,  should  also  be  dis- 
tinguished from  products  of  manufacture,  as  hread.'\ 

6.  Name  some  animals  from  which  we  derive  food.  The  ox,  deer, 
hog,  hare.  Yes ;  but  let  us  consider  the  ox  and  hog  together  and  the 
deer  and  hare  together.  Is  there  not  a  difference  between  these  two 
classes  of  animals  ?     [Draw  out  the  names  domestic  and  wild  animals.] 

7.  How  is  the  flesh  of  an  animal  prepared  for  use  ?  Yes ;  but  is  there 
not  something  before  cooking  takes  place  ?     Killing  or  slaughtering  ? 

8.  What  do  you  mean  by  meat  ?  What  name  is  given  to  the  flesh 
of  the  ox  ?  —  of  the  hog  ?  —  of  the  sheep  ?  —  of  the  calf?  [The  fact  that 
the  names  of  the  live  animals  are  native  English  (Anglo-Saxon),  while 
the  names  of  the  meats  dressed  for  the  table  are  Norman-French,  recalls 
the  fact  that  the  Normans  in  the  eleventh  century  made  themselves 
lords  of  England,  and  treated  the  Saxons  as  inferior  beings.  See  Walter 
Scott's  novel  of  Ivanhoe  for  a  fine  statement  of  this  fact.] 

9.  What  is  the  difference  between  meat  and  gam^  i  Are  there  any 
wild  beasts  hunted  in  this  part  of  the  country  for  game  ?  The  flesh  of 
what  wild  beasts  have  you  ever  eaten  ? 

10.  One  material  for  articles  of  clothing  is  derived  from  animals: 
name  this  article.  Wool.  From  what  animal  is  it  obtained?  [The 
teacher  may  name  and  briefly  describe  the  processes  gone  through  with 
before  wool  becomes  cloth,  as  shearing,  carding,  spinning,  weaving.] 

11.  Is  fur  much  worn  in  this  part  of  the  country  ?  What  is  fur  ? 
What  are  the  favorite  kinds  of  fur?  What  animals  valuable  for  fur 
do  you  know  of?  The  seal.  Yes.  Another?  The  mink.  Another? 
Another?  [Draw  out  from  the  pupils  anything  they  know  regarding 
where  these  animals  are  found,  the  mode  of  capture,  etc.] 

12.  Every  one  of  us  has  some  article  of  clothing  made  of  cotton. 
Does  cotton  gi-ow  in  this  part  of  the  country  ?  Where  does  it  grow  ? 
How  is  it  obtained  ?  How  is  it  prepared  for  market  ?  [Let  the  teacher 
describe  briefly  the  processes  of  carding,  spinning,  and  weaving.] 

13.  Do  you  know  of  any  large  building  in  process  of  erection  in  this 
place  ?  What  is  used  in  its  construction  ?  Wood.  What  else  ?  Brick. 
What  else  ?  etc.     These  are  called  building-material. 

14.  What  is  the  building-material  used  in  most  of  the  houses  in  this 
place  ?  What  kinds  of  trees  furnish  valuable  building-material  ?  What 
is  lumber  ?     How  is  it  obtained  ?    Have  you  ever  seen  a  saw-mUl  ? 

15.  How  are  bricks  made  ?  What  is  meant  by  quarrying  stone  ?  — 
dressing  stone  ?     Of  what  is  glass  made  ? 

16.  Name  some  of  the  materials  from  which  savages  make  their  huts, 
tents,  wigwams,  etc.  Did  you  ever  read  about  the  famous  Ice  Palace 
at  St.  Petersburg? 


II.   FOR    RECITATION. 

The  physical  needs  of  man  are  food,  clothing,  and  shelter.  The 
principal  articles  used  in  supplying  these  needs  are  presented  in 
the  following  table. 

TEACHER'S  NOTE.  —  To  the  teacher  fertile  in  expedients  the  tables  here  given  wUl  be 
found  exceedingly  suggestive.  The  topics  under  each  head  and  subhead  should  be  made  tlie 
basis  of  a  series  of  questions,  conversations,  and  written  composition-exercises,  calciUated 
to  develop  the  thinking  fitculty  of  the  pupils.    A  few  questions  are  appended. 


,  _         f Domestic. Meats 
Deastsi 

IWUd Game.... 


(•Animal.. 


Food.. 


Birds 


[Domestic. .  Poultry. 


Wild., 


.Game... 


Forest. 
Prairie. 

Forest. 
Prairie. 


{Lakes. 
Seas. 
Rivers. 


/-Roots.. 


Vegetable 


Stalks  and  Leaves . 


Grains. 


Fruits. 


Inoroanio.. 


Potatoes. 
Beets. 
.  Onions,  etc. 

Sugar. 
Tea. 
Lettuce. 
Cabbage,  eta 

r  Wheat. 

J  Rye. 

[  Com,  etc 

Apples. 
Peaches. 
Nuts. 
Melons,  eta 

f  Water. 
■  I  Salt. 


Clothing 


Animal f  Wool,  Fur,  Leather. 

I  Silk,  Horns,  Ivory. 


Vegetable. 


Mineral . 


Shelter. 


Cotton. 
Linen. 
Caoutchouc. 
Gutta-percha. 

■  Iron. 
Brass  (Copper  and  Zinc). 

Steel. 

r  Wood. 

Vegetable J  Cotton  and  Linen  Cloths. 

I  Caoutchouc  and  Gutta-percha. 

Mineral |  Brick,  Stone,  Iron. 

I  Lead,  Glass,  Paints. 

Animal Skins. 


Questions.  —  I.  What  are  the  three  divisions  of  food  1  What  three 
classes  of  animals  furnish  us  with  animal  food  ?  How  are  beasts  divided 
as  regards  supplying  food?  What  is  the  food  from  domestic  animals 
called  ?  —  from  wild  animals  ?  Give  the  two  divisions  of  birds,  and  name 
the  foods  supplied  by  them.  What  three  kinds  of  waters  are  frequented 
by  fishes  ?  Name  three  or  more  roo^ vegetables  used  as  food.  From 
the  stalks  or  leaves  of  what  plants  do  we  derive  articles  of  food  ?  What 
six  kinds  of  grain  can  you  name  ?    What  six  fruits  ? 

II.  From  what  three  great  divisions  of  natural  objects  is  material  for 
clothing  obtained  ?  What  six  materials  of  clothing  are  obtained  from 
animals  ?    What  four  from  vegetables  ?    What  three  from  minerals  ? 

III.  From  what  three  great  divisions  of  natural  objects  are  materials 
used  in  building  derived?  What  vegetable  building-materials  can  you 
mention?  What  minerals  or  mineral  products  enter  into  the  construc- 
tion of  buildings  ?     [  The  teacher  will  continue  the  questions  at  pleasure.] 


OCCUPATIONS  OF  MEN.  — STATES  OF  SOCIETY. 


19 


TOPIC    III. 
OCCUPATIONS   OF  MEN. 


I.   ORAL   OUTLINE. 


L  Does  our  food  come  to  us  ready  to  hand,  or  have  we  to  occupy 
ourselves  in  obtaining  it  1     Is  it  the  same  ■with  our  clothing  and  shelter  t 

2.  Are  all  persons  occupied  directly  in  raising  food  ]  What  business 
are  many  persons  engaged  inl  What  other  business  can  you  name? 
These  various  kinds  of  business  are  called  occupations. 

3.  What  is  the  occupation  of  those  engaged  in  tilling  the  soil  called  t 
What  other  name  for  this  occupation  1 

4.  Agriculture  is  one  of  the  great  primary  occupations  of  mankind ; 
more  persons  are  engaged  in  this  occupation  than  in  any  other.  Do  we 
live  in  a  farming  section  1  What  kind  of  country  is  best  adapted  to 
agriculture  1 

6.  There  is  another  occupation  closely  connected  with  agriculture, 
namely,  the  raising  of  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep  :  what  is  this  occupation 
called  ?  What  is  meant  by  live-stock  1  What  is  the  principal  food  of 
live-stock  ?  What  kind  of  land  is  generally  better  adapted  to  grazing 
than  to  agriculture  1 

6.  In  some  parts  of  our  country,  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  sea  or 
of  one  of  the  Great  Lakes,  the  people  are  largely  engaged  in  fishing. 
Is  this  business  carried  on  herel 

7.  Suppose  a  country  is  largely  covered  with  forest,  what  occupation 
will  the  people  be  likely  to  engage  in  ?  What  is  the  process  of  convert- 
ing forest-trees  into  boards  and  other  building-material  1  Is  lumbering 
carried  on  in  this  part  of  our  country  ] 

8.  Name  an  article  in  this  room  made  from  some  metal.  Name  five 
metals.  Name  a  mineral  largely  u.sed  for  fuel.  How  are  minerals  ob- 
tained 1    The  process  of  obtaining  them  is  called  mining. 

9.  Did  you  ever  see  a  coal-mine  1  —  an  iron-mine  1  —  a  lead-mine  ?  — 
a  copper-mine?  —  a  stone-quarry?  Is  this  a  mining  section?  Where 
are  there  coal-mines?  —  gold-mines?  —  silver-mines? 

10.  Grain,  cotton,  wool,  lumber,  iron,  and  hundreds  of  other  articles 
are  used  to  supply  our  needs ;  but  what  must  be  done  with  them  before 
they  are  ready  for  use  ?    What  do  we  make  from  grain  ?  —  from  cotton  ? 

IL  The  process  of  making  things  is  called  manufacturing.  Must  not 
this  be  one  of  the  leading  occupations  of  men  ?     Why  so  ? 

12.  What  is  the  difference  between  a  manufacture  and  a  manufactory  ? 
What  manufactures  are  carried  on  in  this  place  ? 

13.  Have  you  ever  seen  any  of  the  following  manufactories : — a  cotton 
factory, — a  woolen-mill, — a  flour-mill,  —  a  tannery,  —  a  shoe-shop, — 
a  machine-shop,  —  a  foundery,  —  -  a  furniture  factory,  —  a  glass-house  ? 

14.  Manufacturing  means  literally  making  by  hand ;  but  do  we  now 
make  all  articles  by  hand?  Why  not!  What  kinds  oi  iwwer  Ma  used 
in  driving  machinery? 

16.  In  a  part  of  the  country  well  adapted  to  farming,  what  occupation 
will  most  of  the  people  be  engaged  in  ?  In  a  part  of  the  country  con- 
taining a  great  supply  of  coal  and  iron,  what  occupation  may  we  expect 
many  of  the  people  to  be  engaged  in  ? 

16.  The  farmer  probably  raises  more  grain  or  cotton  or  wool  or 
live-stock  than  he  requires :  what  does  he  do  with  what  he  cannot  use 
himself?  Does  the  farmer  need  many  things  that  the  farm  does  not 
produce?     How  does  he  obtain  these  things? 

17.  We  need  coal  for  our  winter  fire ;  but  is  it  convenient  for  all 
persons  to  go  to  the  mines  and  procure  it  there? 

18.  We  thus  see  that  between  different  countries  and  parts  of  the 
same  country  there  must  be  an  exchange  of  articles  raised  or  produced. 
This  exchange  is  called  trade,  or  commerce.  What  merchants  are  there 
here? 

19.  The  articles  sent  out  from  a  country  by  way  of  trade  are  called  its 
earporta  (ex,  out) ;  those  brought  in,  its  tntports  (t'wi,  in).  Name  some 
exports  of  this  place,  —  of  this  State  ;  —  some  imports. 

20.  What  occupations  have  we  now  learned  about? 


n.   FOR    RECITATION. 

L  The  leading  industries,  or  occupations,  by  means  of  which,  the 
physical  wants  of  man  are  supplied  are  agriculture  and  grazing, 
seafaring,  lumbering,  mining,  manufacturing,  and  conunerce. 

2.  Agriculture  is  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  for  the  pxrrpose  of 
procuring  vegetable  productions  suitable  for  food  and  clothing. 
Grazing,  or  the  raising  of  flocks  and  herds,  is  an  industry  closely 
connected  with  agriculture. 

3.  Seafaring  includes  fishing  and  navigation. 

4.  Lumbering  is  the  occupation  of  those  who  cut  down  forest- 
trees  and  saw  them  into  timber  used  for  building,  etc. 

5.  Uining  is  the  occupation  of  those  who  obtain  metals  or 
minerals  from  within  the  earth. 

6.  Manufacturing  is  the  occupation  of  those  who  work  up  natu- 
ral products,  or  raw  material,  into  forms  suitable  for  use. 

7.  Commerce  is  the  occupation  of  those  who  exchange  the 
products  or  manufactures  of  one  country  or  section  for  those  of 
another  country  or  section.  Domestic  commerce  signifies  the  inter- 
change of  commodities  between  two  sections  of  the  same  country ; 
foreign  commerce,  interchange  between  two  countries. 

Transportation,  or  the  carrying  trade,  is  the  occupation  of  those  who  are  engaged 
in  conveying  from  one  section  of  the  country  to  another,  or  from  one  country  to 
anotlier,  goods,  merchandise,  etc.  (caWeA  freight).  The  principal  means  of  trans- 
j)ortation  in  modern  times  are  the  railroad  on  land,  and  steamers  and  sailing-vessels 
on  the  water,  together  with  canal-hoats  on  canals. 


<      ^M^     » 


TOPIC  IV. 
STATES  OP  SOCIETY. 


I.    ORAL    OUTLINE. 


1.  [Let  the  teacher  give  a  vivid  description  of  a  village  in  Central 
Africa,  or  of  an  Indian  tribe,  as  presenting  a  state  of  society  widely  dif- 
ferent from  our  own.]  We  find  tliat  the  African  and  Indian  tribes 
have  no  written  language,  that  they  have  only  the  rudest  hand-arts,  that 
they  live  almost  wholly  on  the  natural  productions  of  the  earth  or  on 
the  flesh  of  animals  killed  in  the  chase,  tliat  they  are  sunk  in  miserable 
superstitions,  and  that  their  ideas  of  all  that  is  highest  and  noblest  are 
low  and  groveling.     This  is  the  savage,  or  barbarous  state. 

2.  [Let  the  teacher  now  call  attention  to  the  features  of  a  highly 
civilized  society,  such  as  we  see  in  our  own  country.]  Such  a  people 
have  a  written  language,  and  a  great  body  of  books  (literature),  record- 
ing the  grandest  and  most  useful  trutlis  of  all  time ;  they  have  discov- 
ered many  of  the  laws  that  govern  all  objects  and  forces  in  nature 
(science),  and  have  invented  modes  of  applying  this  knowledge  so  as 
to  increase  their  comforts  to  a  wonderful  extent  {examples :  the  railroad 
and  steamship,  steam-power  in  factories  and  mills,  the  electric  telegraph 
and  sewing-machine,  water  and  gas  in  cities,  chlorofonn,  etc.) ;  they 
secure  life  and  property  by  good  laws ;  they  show  kindness  to  the 
helpless  by  building  and  keeping  up  benevolent  institutions ;  they  live 
according  to  a  high  standard  of  what  is  right  and  just ;  and,  finally,  they 
are  constantly  improving  their  condition,  thus  holding  Qut  to  the  human 
race  the  prospect  of  unlimited  progress.     This  is  the  civilized  state. 

3.  [Let  the  teacher  now  give  a  description  of  the  social  state  of  a 
people  like  the  Chinese.]  We  find  in  a  community  like  this  that  the 
people  live  under  a  fixed  government ;  that  they  have  a  written  language, 
with  some  literature,  that  they  practice  many  of  the  mechanical  arts, 
etc. ;  but  we  also  find  that  they  are  not  a  free,  an  educated,  a  pro- 
gressive people.     This  is  the  semi-civilized  state. 

4.  The  savage,  semi-civilized,  and  civilized  conditions  are  the  three 
principal  states  of  human  society. 


20 


POLITICAL  GEOGEAPHY. 


II.    FOR    RECITATION. 

!.'•  Civilization  signifies  the  condition  of  a  race  or  nation  in 

regard  to  its  mode  of  living  and  its  degree  of  progress. 

Note. All  peoples  possess  more  or  less  of  the  elements  of  civilisation.     The 

nide  Australian  savage  who  has  discovered  how  to  make  fire  by  rubbing  two  sticks 
together,  the  Indian  who  has  succeeded  in  making  a  stone  mortar  in  which  to  pound 
his  com,  the  negro  of  Central  Africa  who  has  learned  how  to  make  an  iron  spear- 
head, have  all  taken  the  first  steps  in  civilization.  All  the  advanced  nations  have 
grown  up  from  lower  conditions  of  civilization. 

2.  Its  Forms.  —  For  the  sake  of  convenience  three  stages  of 
society,  or  states  of  civilization,  are  spoken  of:  these  are  the  savage, 
or  barbarous,  the  semi-civilized,  and  the  civilized  states. 

3.  The  savage  state  is  that  in  which  men  are  not  gathered  into 
organized  society :  people  in  this  condition  subsist  chiefly  by  hunt- 
ing and  fishing,  and  on  the  spontaneous  productions  of  the  earth ; 
they  are  without  written  language,  and  their  religion,  consisting 
of  the  worship  of  idols  (fetish  worship),  is  of  the  lowest  order. 

4.  The  semi-civilized  state  is  that  of  people  who  have  so  far  risen 
above  the  savage  condition  as  to  have  a  written  language,  to  culti- 
vate the  soil,  to  carry  on  rude  industries,  and  to  live  in  settled 
communities.  In  religion  the  people  in  this  condition  are  Bud- 
dhists or  Mohammedans. 

6.  The  civilized  state  is  that  of  the  great  nations  of  the  world : 
it  is  represented  by  those  people  whose  governments  are  founded 
on  written  law,  who  possess  all  the  valuable  arts,  and  their  practi- 
cal applications,  who  have  made  advances  in  science  and  literature, 
and  who  are  progressive  in  all  that  gives  greatness  and  dignity  to 
mankind.     Most  civilized  nations  profess  the  Christian  religion. 


TOPIC    V. 
GOVERNMENT   AND   POLITICAL   DIVISIONS. 

I.    ORAL   OUTLINE. 

1.  Do  you  live  in  a  city  or  in  a  country  district  1  [If  in  a  city]  What 
is  the  name  of  this  city  t  What  makes  it  a  city  1  The  fact  that  it  has  a 
large  collection  of  dwellings  and  inhabitants.  Yes ;  but  is  there  nothing 
else  required  to  constitute  a  city  1  [Let  the  teacher  explain  that  cities 
are  incorpoi-ated  as  such  by  act  of  the  State  Legislature,  and  that  they 
have  city  charters.] 

2.  [If  in  a  country  district :]  What  is  the  name  of  this  town  (or 
township)  1    What  villages  does  this  town  contain  1 

3.  In  what  county  do  we  live  ]  What  is  a  county  ?  [Let  the 
teacher  elicit  from  the  pupils  the  notion  of  a  political  subdivision  of  a 
State.]  Do  you  know  of  any  other  counties  in  this  State?  Do  you 
know  how  many  counties  there  are  in  this  State  ? 

4.  What  is  the  name  of  our  State  ]  What  is  a  State,  as  understood 
in  the  United  States  t  Is  it  the  same  as  a  nation  1  Can  a  nation  make 
war  and  peace  ?  Can  a  State  1  Can  a  nation  coin  money  %  Can  a  State  % 
Can  a  State  make  its  own  laws  %  Can  a  State  make  any  laws  contrary 
to  the  fundamental  law  of  the  United  States'!  In  what  instrument 
is  this  fundamental  law  expressed?  [In  this  way  let  the  teacher  draw 
out  the  thought  of  the  relation  of  the  State  to  the  general  government.] 

5.  What  is  the  body  called  that  makes  the  laws  for  a  State  ?  Is  it 
composed  of  one  branch  (or  house)  or  of  two  1  What  are  the  names  of 
these  branches  ?     How  often  does  the  Legislature  meet  in  this  State  ? 

6.  What  name  is  given  to  that  branch  of  our  State  government  that 
applies  the  laws  to  actual  cases  ?  The  Judicial  branch  ?  Correct ;  and 
the  judicial  functions  are  exercised  by  the  courts.  [The  teacher  must  at 
this  point  give  a  brief  oral  exposition  of  the  organization  of  the  State 


courts.]  What  officer  holds  the  executive  power  of  the  State?  How 
often  is  the  Governor  elected  in  this  State  ?  How  old  must  he  be  ?  Can 
you  name  any  of  his  powers  ?    What  does  the  Lieutenant-Governor  do  ? 

7.  Of  what  is  the  United  States  composed  ?  How  many  States  are 
there  ?  Are  the  States  united  ?  Has  each  State  a  great  deal  of  power 
of  its  own  ?  When  a  government  is  Aade  up  of  a  number  of  States 
united  it  is  called  a  Federal  Government  (Latin,  foedus,  a  league).  This 
is  the  case  with  Switzerland.  It  is  also  the  case  with  the  United  States. 
[The  teacher  may  here  explain  the  subdivision  of  the  powers  of  govern- 
ment into  the  Legislative,  Judicial,  and  Executive  branches.] 

8.  Have  we  any  king  to  rule  us  in  this  country  ?  Who  is  the  ruler 
in  this  country  ?  The  President,  do  you  say  ?  But  do  not  the  people 
make  the  President  ?  Then  Congress  ?  But  can  any  man  go  as  a  repre- 
sentative to  Congress  unless  the  people  send  him  there  ? 

9.  A  government  in  which  the  people  hold  the  supreme  power,  elect- 
ing the  officers  to  make  and  administer  the  laws,  is  called  a  republic,  or 
democracy/.     What  republics  in  Europe  can  you  name? 

10.  Is  England  a  republic  ?  Who  is  the  present  sovereign  of  Great 
Britain  ?  A  country  over  which  a  sovereign  (King  or  Queen)  rides  is 
called  a  monarchy.  But  here  we  must  notice  an  important  difference 
in  monarchical  governments.  Can  the  Queen  of  England  make  any 
laws?  What  body  makes  the  laws  for  England?  Can  the  Emperor 
of  Russia  make  any  laws  ?  Is  there  anything  to  limit  his  power  as  there 
is  in  the  case  of  the  sovereign  of  England  or  Germany  ? 

IL  A  monarchy  in  which  the  power  of  the  sovereign  is  limited  by 
law  is  called  a  limited  monarchy.  A  monarchy  in  which  the  power  of 
the  sovereign  is  unlimited  by  law  is  called  an  absolute  monarchy,  or 
despotism. 

II.    FOR    RECITATION. 

1.  Government  is  the  established  form  of  law  and  rule ;  that  is, 
the  supreme  power,  or  sovereignty  of  a  country. 

2.  A  republican  government  (or  a  republic)  is  one  in  which  su- 
preme power  is  exercised  by  the  people,  who  elect  representatives 
to  make  laws  and  certain  officers  to  execute  them. 

3.  A  monarchy  is  a  government  in  which  the  executive  power 

is  in  the  hands  of  a  sovereign,  called  king  (queen)  or  emperor. 

Note.  —  A  limited  or  constitutional  monarchy  is  a  government  in  which  the 
power  of  the  sovereign  is  limited  by  law,  and  the  laws  are  made  by  representatives  of 
the  people.  An  absolute  monarchy,  autocracy,  or  desjxitism  is  a  government  in 
which  the  sovereign  has  unlimited  power  to  make  as  well  as  to  execute  the  laws. 

4.  A  State,  in  our  country,  means  one  of  the  divisions  of  the 
United  States,  in  which  division  the  people  elect  a  legislature  and  a 
governor  to  make  and  execute  laws. 

Note.  —  In  its  use  outside  of  oiu-  country,  the  term  slate  is  synonymous  with 
iiaiion,  or  country. 

5.  A  Territory,  in  our  country,  means  a  region  not  organized 
as  a  State,  and  yet  having  a  territorial  government. 

6.  A  county  is  a  subdivision  of  a  State,  having  its  own  local 
officers.  The  place  where  tiie  county  officers  transact  business  is 
called  the  county-seat,  or  shire-town. 

7.  A  township,  or  town,  is  a  subdivision  of  a  county,  and  has 
its  local  officers. 

8.  A  city  is  a  subdivision  of  a  county,  and  has  its  own  muni- 
cipal officers  and  laws.     The  highest  officer  is  the  Mayor. 

9.  A  seaport,  or  seaboard  city,  is,  as  the  name  denotes,  a  city  on 
the  sea-coast.     The  name  is  used  in  contrast  with  inland  city. 

10.  The  metropolis  of  a  State  or  country  is  its  principal  city. 

11.  The  capital  of  a  country  is  the  seat  of  government.  The 
capital  of  our  country  is  Washington. 

12.  State  Capital. — The  capital  of  a  State,  in  our  country,  means 
the  city  or  town  where  the  legislature  meets  to  make  laws. 


REVIEW  AND  TEST  QUESTIONS  AND   EXERCISES. 


21 


REVIEW   AND  TEST  QUESTIONS  AND   EXERCISES. 


r     INTRODUCTION. 

1.  What  is  the  distinction  between  Physical  and  Political  Geography  ?  2.  Write 
from  memory  the  principal  topics  of  Physical  Geography  ;  —  of  Political  Geography. 

3.  State  a  local  fact  in  Physical  Geography.  4.  State  a  local  fact  in  Political  Geog- 
raphy. 5.  What  is  Mathematical  Geography  ?  6.  Which  division  of  geography  tells 
us  about  the  latitude  of  s  place  ?  7.  Which  division  tells  us  about  the  face  of  the 
country  and  the  minerals  in  the  earth  ?  8.  Which  division  tells  us  about  the  man- 
ners a:id  customs  of  different  peoples  ? 

n.     MATHEMATICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

[Topic  I.)  1.  What  is  the  form  of  the  HJirth  ?  2.  Who  first  circumnavigated 
the  globe  ?  3.  Is  it  possible  that  the  Earth  might  be  circumnavigated  without 
being  spherical  ?  i.  What  fact  of  astronomy  conclusively  proves  that  the  Earth  is 
spherical  ?  5.  What  is  a  sphere  flattened  at  two  opposite  parts  called  ?  6.  What  is 
meant  by  circumference  ?  —  by  diameter  ?  7.  What  is  the  circumference  of  the 
Earth  in  miles  ?  8.  What  is  the  diameter  of  the  Earth  in  round  numbers  ? 
9.  What  is  the  exact  length  of  that  diameter  on  which  the  Earth  rotates  ?  10.  How 
much  shorter  is  tliat  than  the  equatorial  diameter  1 

[Topics  II.- IV.]  1.  When  you  face  the  sun  at  noon  you  are  looking  in  what 
direction  ?    2.  In  what  direction  will  your  shadow  extend  ?    3.  \VTiere  is  east  then  ? 

4.  Name  the  semi-cardinal  points.  5.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  Latin  word  axis? 
6.  On  what  does  a  wheel  revolve  f  7.  On  what  does  a  top  spin  ?  8.  On  what  does 
tlie  Earth  rotate  ?  9.  What  is  the  Earth's  axis  ?  10.  What  is  an  imaginary  line  ? 
11.  Where  is  the  North  Star?  12.  Where  is  the  North  Pole  ?  13.  Which  extrem- 
ity of  the  Earth's  axis  is  the  South  Pole  ?  14.  What  is  the  length  in  miles  from  the 
North  to  the  South  Pole  1  15.  What  is  the  distinction  between  a  map  and  a  per- 
spective view  ? 

[Topics  v.- VII.)  1.  What  is  the  use  of  latitude  and  longitude?  2.  What  is 
the  E<[uator  ?  3.  Where  is  the  Northern  Hembphere  ?  —  the  Southern  Hemisphere  ? 
4.  What  do  you  mean  by  the  latitude  of  a  place  ?  5.  What  is  the  latitude  of  a  place 
on  the  Equator  ?  6.  What  is  the  latitude  of  the  North  Pole  ?  7.  How  many  de- 
grees of  latitude  between  the  two  Poles  ?  8.  What  is  the  latitude  of  a  place  just 
midway  between  the  Equator  and  the  North  Pole  ?  9.  Why  is  it  that  while  on  the 
school-globe  the  parallels  of  latitude  are  really  parallel  circles,  the  lines  drawn  on 
the  hemisphere  map  are  not  parallel  ?  10.  What  is  the  length  in  miles  of  every 
degree  of  latitude  ?  11.  Perform  on  the  blackboard  the  operation  in  multiplication 
for  finding  the  distance  in  miles  from  the  Equator  to  the  North  Pole. 

12.  Wfiat  is  meant  by  the  longitude  of  a  place  ?  13.  What  is  the  Prime  Meridian 
generally  used  ?  14.  How  many  degrees  of  East  Longitude  are  there  ?  —  of  West 
Longitude  ?  15.  If  two  persons  setting  out  from  the  Meridian  of  Greenwich  were 
to  travel  exactly  the  same  distance,  one  due  east  and  the  other  due  west,  on  what 
meridian  would  they  meet  ?  16.  In  what  direction  docs  the  Earth  turn  on  its  axis  ? 
17.  In  what  time  does  it  make  a  complete  rotation  ?  18.  If  the  Earth  turns  through 
360°  in  24  hours,  through  how  many  degrees  does  it  turn  in  1  hour  1  19.  Do  people 
at  places  west  from  here  receive  the  sunlight  earlier  than  we  do  or  later  ?  20.  Will 
a  man  who  has  traveled  from  New  York  to  San  Francisco  find  his  watch  fast  or 
slow  ?  21.  How  much,  and  why  ?  22.  What  is  the  length  of  a  degree  of  longitude 
on  the  Equator  ?  —  at  the  North  Pole  ?  23.  What  is  the  latitude  of  the  place  where 
you  live  ?  24.  What  is  the  length  of  a  degree  of  longitude  at  this  place  ?  [See  table 
in  Appendix.] 

[Topic  VIII.J  1.  What  is  meant  by  vertical  rays  of  light  ?  —  by  oblique  rays  ? 
2,  Which  are  the  hotter,  and  why  ?  3.  Why  is  it  cooler  in  the  morning  than  at 
noon  ?  4.  Why  is  it  colder  in  winter  than  in  summer  ?  5.  On  what  part  of  the 
Earth  do  the  sun's  rays  always  fall  vertically  or  nearly  so  ?  6.  What  are  the  names 
of  the  two  circles  that  mark  the  northern  and  southern  limits  of  places  that  at  some 
time  of  the  year  have  the  sun  exactly  vertical  ?  7.  Is  the  sun  ever  vertical  in  this 
part  of  the  Earth  ?  8.  When  is  it  most  nearly  vertical  ?  9.  What  is  the  Torrid 
Zone  ?    10.  Between  what  circles  is  the  North  Temperate  Zone  ?  —  the  South  Tem- 


perate Zone  ?    11.   Where  is  the  North  Frigid  Zone  ?  —  the  South  Frigid  Zone  ? 

12.  What  is  the  width  in  degrees  of  the  Torrid  Zone  ?—  of  each  Temperate  Zone  ? 
—  of  each  Frigid  Zone  ?  13.  Draw  a  diagram  showing  the  circles  of  climate  and 
the  zones. 

in.     FHTSICAI.   GEOGRAPHY. 

[Topics  I. -III.l  1.  What  are  the  proportions  of  land  and  water  on  the  surface 
of  the  Earth  ?  2.  Name  and  state  the  locarion  of  the  two  continents,  with  the  grand 
divisions  of  land  in  each.  3.  Define  coast-line.  4.  Write  on  the  blackboard  the 
forms  of  land  by  contour  ;  —  by  relic/.  5.  What  is  the  distinction  between  a  cape 
and  a  peninsula  ?  —  between  a  plain  and  a  plateau  ?  6.  Is  a  watei-shed  a  division 
of  land  or  of  water  ?  7.  Which  is  the  greater  division,  a  mountain-range  or  a 
mountain-system  ?  8.  Name  a  mountain-system  in  the  United  States.  9.  What  is 
meant  by  the  Basin  of  the  Mississippi  ?  10.  Name  the  five  oceans.  11.  Define 
a  sea  ;  —  a  gulf ;  —  a  bay.      12.    What   two  bodies  of  water  are   wholly  inland  ? 

13.  What  is  a  river-system  ?  14.  What  body  of  land  corresponds  to  a  lake  ? 
15.  What  division  of  water  corresponds  to  an  isthmus? 

[Topic  IV.l  1.  What  is  meant  by  the  climate  of  a  country  or  place  t  2.  What 
is  the  general  law  of  climate  ?  3.  If  a  place  is  in  a  high  latitude  what  may  you 
expect  in  regard  to  its  degi'ee  of  heat  ?  4.  If  a  place  is  at  a  high  altitude  what  may 
you  expect  in  regard  to  its  degree  of  heat  ?  5.  Are  any  parts  of  the  Torrid  Zone  cov- 
ered with  pei-petual  snow  ?  —  what  parts  ?  6.  Which  currents  of  air  are  hot  ? 
7.  From  what  direction  do  cold  winds  blow  ?  8.  Why  at  the  sea-shore  is  it  cooler 
in  summer  and  warmer  in  winter  than  on  land  ?  9.  How  do  you  account  for  the  fact 
that  it  is  often  hotter  in  New  York  than  in  New  Orleans  ? 

[Topics  v.,  VI.]  1.  Since  plant-life  depends  largely  on  heat,  in  what  zone  may 
we  expect  to  find  vegetation  most  luxuriant  ?  —  in  which  most  scanty  I  2.  Why  do 
apple-trees  in  spring  blossom  earlier  on  a  southern  hill-slope  than  on  a  northern  ? 

3.  What  else  besides  heat  is  necessary  to  the  growth  of  plants  ?  4.  Can  you  give 
any  illustration,  drawn  from  near  home,  of  the  dependence  of  vegetation  on  moisture  ? 
5.  Name  some  characteristic  i)lants  of  the  Tropical  Zone.  6.  Name  some  fruits  we 
cannot  grow  in  tliis  country,  and  state  why.  7.  By  what  conditions  are  animals  in- 
fluenced ?  8.  Wliat  zone  is  most  prolific  in  animals  ?  9 .  Write  out  on  slates  the 
names  of  the  animals  represented  in  the  picture  showing  "Zones  of  Animal  Life." 
10.  Why,  if  there  were  no  plants  on  the  surface  of  the  earth,  would  it  be  impossible 
for  man  to  live  ?  11.  Why  do  people  in  the  Polar  regions  live  mainly  on  animal 
food,  and  in  the  Tropical  regions  on  vegetable  food  ?  12.  Why  do  we  live  on  both 
lands  ? 

IV.    POLITICAI.   GEOGRAPHY. 

[Topic  I.]  1.  What  are  the  five  races,  or  tyjjes  of  mankind  ?  2.  To  which  type 
do  we  belong  ?  3.  How  many  millions  of  Caucasians  are  there  ?  4.  Name  an 
Asiatic  people  belonging  to  this  race.  5.  Describe  the  physical  characteristics  of  the 
Mongolians.  6.  To  wliat  race  do  the  Japanese  belong  ?  7.  Where  did  the  ancestors 
of  the  colored  people  in  this  country  come  from  ?  8.  How  many  negroes  are  there 
supposed  to  be  in  the  world  ?  9.  How  do  Malays  differ  from  Mongolians  ?  10.  De- 
scribe a  North  American  Indian. 

[Topics  II.,  III.]  1.  What  are  the  three  physical  wants  of  man  ?  2.  What 
three  classes  of  foods  do  we  use  ?  8.  State  the  class  to  which  the  following  foods 
belong  :  beef,  veal,  pork,  turkey,  trout ;  com,  wheat,  tea,  sugar,  apples  ;  salt,  water. 

4.  Name  three  materials  for  clothing  derived  from  animals  ;  —  two  from  vegetables. 

5.  What  are  the  principal  building  materials  used  in  our  country  ?  6.  Define  agri- 
culture ;  —  mining  ;  —  manufacturing.  7.  What  are  those  persons  called  who  are 
engaged  in  exchanging  the  products  of  one  region  for  those  of  another  ?  8.  What  is 
the  name  given  to  the  business  of  carrying  things  by  way  of  trade  from  one  region  to 
another  ?  9.  Why  do  we  speak  of  ourselves  as  a  civilized  people  ?  10.  What  is 
meant  by  an  absolute  government  ?  11.  Do  a  republic  and  a  constitutional  mon- 
archy agree  in  having  a  body  of  men  to  make  the  laws  ?  12.  What,  then,  is  the 
principal  difference  between  these  two  forms  of  government  ? 


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F.  jr. 


NORTH  AMERICA. 


23 


NORTH    AMERICA. 


nCmOAL  MAT  OF  HOBTH   AVEXIOA. 


L  North  America  is  the  northern  grand  division  of  the 

Westei-u  Hemisphere,  or  New  World. 

2.  Its  extent,  from  the  Arctic  Ocean  almost  to  the 
I']quator,  is  about  4,800  miles,  and  from  the  Atlantic  to 
ihe  Pacific  Ocean,  about  3,000  miles.  North  America  is 
double  the  size  of  Europe,  but  only  half  the  size  of  Asia. 

3.  In  form  this  grand  division  is  triangular. 

II.    OUTLINE. 

Map  Study.  —  1.  Which  coast,  the  eastern  or  the  western,  is  the 
more  broken  by  gulfs  and  bays  ?  2.  Name  the  principal  gulfs  and 
liays  of  the  eastern  coast ;  —  of  the  western  coast ;  —  of  the  southern  coast. 
3.  Name  the  five  principal  peninsulas  of  North  America.  4.  Name  four 
of  the  most  prominent  capes.     5.  Describe  the  following: — 


Gulfs,  Bays, 
Seas. 


Peninsulas. 


Baffin  Bay. 
Hudson  Bay. 
Gulf  of  St.  La«Tence. 
Gulf  of  Mexico. 

/  Nova  Scotia. 
1  Florida. 


Capes 


■{ 


Farewell. 
Race. 


Cod. 
Hatteras. 


Caribbean  Sea. 
Honduras  [doo'ras]  ] 
Gulf  of  California. 
Ber'ing  Sea. 

Yucatan. 
Lower  California. 

Sable.  Mendocino. 

San  Lucas.    Point  Barrow. 


4  Its  outline  is  irregular,  the  coast  being  deeply  pene- 
trated by  iiibreakings  of  the  surrounding  oceans.  The 
Atlantic  seaboard  is  much  more  indented  by  gulfs  and 
bays  than  the  Pacific  coast ;  and  this  is  a  commercial 
advantage,  since  the  Atlantic  seaboard  lies  nearest  the 
great  markets  of  the  world. 

III.    SURFACE. 

Map  Study. — 1.  Wliat  mountain  system  extends  parallel  with  the 
Atlantic  coa.st  V    2.  What  system  traverses  North  America  from  north 
MAP     STUDIES     ON     THE     XJ^  to  south  in  its  western  section?     3.  Point  to  the  Rocky  Mountains  on 

the  Physical  Map;  —  ix)int  to  the  Appalachian  Mountains.     4.  Which 
To  aasirer  these  qnestlons  refer  to  the  laixe  Map  on  the  next  paKe  )  slope  of  the  Appalachian  Mountains  is  the  longer,  the  eastern  or  the 

western?    ytH«.  The  western.     Which,  of  the  Rocky  Mountains?   Ans. 

Surface,     f  jjg  eastern.     5.  Looking  at  the  Physical  Map,  what  seems  to  be  the 

Eastern  gene™!  character  of  the  surface  between  these  two  mountain  sy.stem8, 

States  ?    2    mountainous  or  level?     6.  What  are  the  Pacific  coast  ranges  called? 

7.  What  name  do  the  Rocky  Mountains  bear  in  Mexico  ? 


Position  and  Extent 

1.  Which  portion  of  North  America  is  occupied  by  the  United  States  ?    2.  What 
country  north  ?    3.  What  country  south  1    4.  What  natural  boundaries  on  the  east 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

ly  To  draw  the  Map  of  North  America,  see  section  on  Map-Drawing,  page  138. 

I.    POSITION,    SIZE,    AND    SHAPE. 

Map  Study. — 1.  In  which  hemisphere  is  North  America?  2.  Wliich  ^rand 
divi-nioii  of  the  Western  continent  is  it?  3.  What  three  oceans  surround  it? 
4.  By  what  is  it  connected  with  South  America?  —  scjuirated  from  A.sia ?  5.  What 
is  the  most  northern  ca{)C  (")ioint")  in  Ala.ska,  and  in  what  latitude  is  it?  6.  In 
what  latitude  is  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  ?  7.  What  is  the  longitude  of  Cape  Race, 
Newfoundland?  8.  What  is  the  longitude  of  C'aiic  Mendocino  [»<;' no]?  9.  Between 
what  lines  of  latitude  and  longitude  is  North  America  included?  Am.  In  general 
term-i,  between  the  (nrallels  of  10°  and  70°  north  latitude  and  the  meridians  or55° 
and  165°  west  longitude  (Greenwich).  10.  What  seems,  from  the  Map,  to  be  the 
general  shape  of  North  America  ? 


5.  Chief  Axis. —The  Kocky  Mountains  are  the  chief  axis  of 
elevation  —  the  backbone,  as  it  were  —  of  North  America.  The 
massive  chains  of  tliis  system  rise  from  a  plateau  which  has  a 
gradual  ascetit  from  the  Arctic  Ocean  to  between  4,000  and  8,000 
feet  in  the  United  States  and  Mexico.  This  mountain  plateau 
region  is  from  400  to  800  miles  wide. 

Mount  St.  Elins,  the  loftiest  peak  of  North  America,  is  19,283  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea. 

8.  The  Appalachian  or  Alleghany  Mountains  form  the  secondary 
highlands  of  North  America.  They  are  only  about  one  fourtli  the 
length  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  in  structure  are  far  less 
massive  than  that  system.     They  average  about  3,000   feet  in 


24 


NOKTH  AMEEICA, 


height,  —  their  highest  peaks  reaching  an  elevation  of  less  than 
7,000  feet. 

Note.  —Black  Mountain  (N.  C),  6,707  ft.  ;  Mt.  Washington  (N.  H.),  6,288  ft. 

7.  Highlands  and  Plains.  —  Both  the  great  mountain  systems 
of  North  America  have  their  general  direction  north  and  south. 
Since  one  system  is  near  the  eastern  and  the  other  near  the  west- 
em  coast,  the  longer  slope  of  both  mountain  systems  is  toward  the 
interior,  which,  accordingly,  is  a  great  plain. 

8.  Physical  Divisions.  —  These  mountain  systems  divide  North 
America  into  three  Physical  Eegions:  1.  The  Pacific  Highland 
and  Pacific  Slope ;  2.  The  Atlantic  Highland  and  Plain ;  3.  The 
Central  Plain. 

Pacific  Highland  and  Slope.  —  The  Pacific  Highland  comprises 
em  half  of  North  America,  and  extends  from  the  Arctic  Ocean  to  the 
of  Panama.  It  consists  of  a  vast  plateau  ridged  by  the  numerous 
chains  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  .system  in  its  eastern  and  central  part 
the  Sierra  Nevada  [se-er'ra  nay-vah'dd],  Cascade,  and  Coast  Ranges  on 
em  bonier.  Between  the  Sierra  Neviuia  Mountains  and  the  Pacific 
the  Pacific  Slope. 

Atlantic  Highland  and  Plain.  —  This  region,  extending  from 
of  St.  Lkiwrence  nearly  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  consists  of  (1)  the  lev 
ranges  of  the  Appalachian  Mountains  ;  (2)  the  western  slope  ;  and  (3) 
em  slope,  or  plain.    This  is  divided  into  the  Middle  Country  and  t  av> 
water  region. 

Central  Plain. —  The  Central  Plain  lies  between  the  two  Highlan( 
and  extends  from  the  Arctic  Ocean  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  This  rej 
sists  of  two  immense  slopes,  —  the  northern  slope  being  the  Arctic  1 
southern  slope  the  Mississippi  Valley.  The  dividing  ridge  is  a  slig 
tion  near  the  center,  called  the  Height  of  Land. 

IV.    RIVERS    AND    LAKES. 

Map  Study. — 1.  Where  does  the  Mississippi  proper  rise  1     2.  Whprfc;S*t» 
Missouri  rise  ?    3.  Where  do  these  two  great  rivers  unite  ?     4.  What  is  t 
tributary  of  the  Mississippi  from  the  Appalachian  Mountains  ?    5.  What  ri 
the  Great  Lakes?    6.  Wliat  large  river  flows  into  Lake  Win'nipeg?    7.  V 
drains  Lake  Winnipeg  into  Hudson  Bay?    8.  What  large  river  flows  nortl 
the  Arctic  Ocean  ?    9.  Show  on  the  Physical  Map  the  locality  of  the  Heigh 
dividing  the  rivers  flowing  southward  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  from  those  fl 
Hudson  Bay  and  the  Arctic  Ocean.     Describe  the  Yukon, — the  Colum\, 
Colorado  [rah' do].     10.  Looking  at  the  Physical  Map,  do  you  say  that 
flowing  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean  are  long  or  short  ?    11.  Why  short  ?    An 
the  short  slope  of  the  Appalachian  Mountains  is  toward  the  Atlantic  Ocea 

9.  The  river-systems  of  Nortli  America,  with  the  regi( 
drain  and  the  chief  representatives  of  each  system,  are : 


V.    CLIMATE. 

Map  Study.  —  1.  In  which  zone  is  three  fourths  of  North  America  ?  2.  In 
which  zone  is  the  extreme  southern  part  ?  3.  Is  any  part  of  the  United  States  in 
the  Torrid  Zone  ?  4  In  which  zone  is  the  whole  of  the  United  States  except 
Alaska  ?  5.  Which  part  of  North  America  is  in  the  Arctic  Zone  ?  6.  Which  part 
of  North  America  must  be  constantly  hot?  7.  Which  part  must  be  constantly 
cold  ?  8.  Considering  what  we  have  learned  regarding  the  influence  of  climate  on 
man,  which  part  of  North  America  do  you  think  the  best  fitted  to  be  the  home  of 
great  nations  ?    Why  so  ? 

IL  General  Statement  —  North  America  has  what  is  called  a 
corUinental  climate ;  that  is,  a  climate  of  extremes,  being  exceed- 
ingly hot  in  summer  and  exceedingly  cold  in  winter.  The  reason 
of  this  is  that  the  Central  Plain  is  open  to  the  cold  winds  from 
the  Arctic  Ocean,  while  it  is  cut  off  by  the  coast  mountain  ranges 


Syatem. 


1.  Arctic  System 

2.  Qnlf  System 

3.  St.  Lawrence  System 

4.  Atlantic  System   -   ■ 
6.  Pacific  System  ■ 


Drainage. 


Arctic  Plain,  including  the  Basin 
of  Hudson  Bay. 

Inner  slopes  of  both  Highland 
Regions,  and  southern  slope 
of  the  Central  Plain. 

Basin  of  the  Great  Lakes  and 
St.  Lawrence  River. 


Eastern  Slope  of  the  Appala- 
chian Mountains. 

Western   slope   of   the   Pacific 
Highland. 


Rivers  (chi( 


Mackenzie   and  8as!'«,    % 
with  minor  stream  VV  ^ 

Mississippi,  Missouri  ffon&e,  ^-^ 
kan'sas,  Rio  Grand  >C    V'*^Wita 

St.  Lawrence,  and  ^?*^|*" 
taries,  most  of  whi<  V  ^^^^^-i 
"  Height  of  Land. 

Connecticut,  Hudson,  Savannah, 
etc. 

Yukon,  Columbia,  Colorado. 


lOl  Lakes.  —  The  principal  lakes,  with  the  countries  in  which 
they  are  situated,  are :  — 


United  States 
and  Canada. 


'  Superior. 

Huron. 

Erie. 
,  Ontario. 
(  Michigan. 
United  States.  J  Champlain'. 
I  Great  Salt. 


Canada. 


Winnipeg. 
Athabas'ca. 
Great  Slave. 
.  Great  Bear. 


Mexico  and      f  Chapal'a. 
Central  America.  [  Nicaragua  [rah'gua]. 


'  The  pnpUs  may  locate  each  of  these  lakes. 


■^ -^^ Bfvj 

for  commerce  and  intercommunication. 


VII.    POLITICAL    DIVISIONS. 

1.  Which  is  the  largest  ? 


Countries . . . 


Where  are 
these  citiesl 


a  The  smallest  ?  3.  The  most  northern  ? 
4  The  most  southern  ?  5.  Which  one  is  nearest  Asia  ?  6.  Nearest 
Europe  ?  7.  Which  is  the  great  middle  division  ?  8.  Which  are 
islands  ?    Ans.  The  West  Indies. 

Washington.    Baltimore.         San  Francisco.  Ot'tawa. 

New  York.      Chicago.  Mexico.  Havana. 

Philadelphia.  St.  Louis.  MontreaL  Vera  Cruz. 

Boston.  New  Orleans.  Quebec'.  New  Guatemala. 

18.  The  Political  Divisions  of  North  America  are :  I.  Danish 
America.  II.  Dominion  of  Canada.  III.  The  UNrrEo  States. 
rV.  Mexico.     V.  Centeax  America.    VI.  The  West  Indies. 


THE  UNITED    STATES. 


25 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


MAP  STUDIES  ON  THE  mtriTED  STATES. 


To  aaiwer  these  qnestlons  refer  to  the  hu-Ke  Map  on  the  next  pace  jn  connection  with  the  Phyilcal  Map  grlren  sbovSi 

Surface.  I 


Position  and  Extent 

1.  Which  portion  of  North  America  is  occupied  by  tho  United  States  ?  2.  What 
country  north  f  3.  What  country  south  f  4.  What  natural  boundaries  on  tho  east 
luii  ■WBirt.l  &.  ^Ynft-parfiHel  forms  tHe  northern  boundary Tn  the  western  half? 
6.  Bound  the  United  States.  7.  What  is  tlio  latitude  of  Cape  Sable  (Florida)  ? 
8.  Regarding  the  parallel  of  49'  as  the  general  northern  boundary  of  the  United 
States,  between  what  degrees  of  latitude  is  our  country  situated  ? 

Outline. 

I.  Between  Pas.samaquoddy  Bay  and  Cape  Co<l  what  is  the  shape  of  the  coast  ? 
Am.  It  is  curve<l.  2.  Between  Cape  Cod  and  what  other  cape  is  there  a  second 
curve  ?  3.  Where  is  the  third  curve  ?  4.  What  bay  in  the  first  curve  ?  5.  What 
thrct!  imi>ortant  bays  indent  the  coast  between  Cape  Cod  and  Cape  Hatteras  ? 
6.  Name  four  capes  sontli  of  Cape  Hatteras.  7.  Prom  the  southern  point  of  Florida 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Grande  what  is  the  fonn  of  the  coast  ?  8.  What  is  the 
name  of  the  great  southern  inbreaking  of  the  oci^an  ?  9.  Is  the  western  coast  much 
indented?  10.  Where  is  Puget  Sound  ?  11.  Wliat  bay  on  the  Pacific  Coast  in 
nearly  the  same  latitude  as  the  mouth  <>f  Chesni)Ciiko  Bsiy  t  12.  Name  three  capes 
on  the  Pacific  coast  of  the  United  Statt.'s? 


Eastern  Hlfrhland.  —  1.  What  mountains  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  United 
StAt(;s.?  2[  What  is  tlieir  general  direction  ?  3.  They  begin  near  tlie  St.  Lawrence  ; 
in  wliich  State  do  tliey  terminate?  4.  Point  out  (on  the  Physical  Map)  the  Appala- 
cliian  Mountain  System  ? 

Western  Highland.  —  1.  What  is  the  general  character  of  the  surface  in  the 
western  part  of  the  United  States  ?  2.  What  great  mountain  system  is  found  here  t 
3.  What  is  the  general  direction  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  t  4.  What  chains  of 
mountains  nearer  the  Pacific  co«.st  ?  5.  Point  out  (on  tlie  Physical  Map)  the  RocVy 
Mountains?  —  the  Sierra  Neva<la  Range. 

Uississlppi  Valley.  —  1.  What  is  the  name  of  the  vast  region  between  the 
Appalachian  and  the  Rocky  Mountains?  2.  Point  it  out  on  tho  Physical  Map. 
3.  How  much  of  the  surface  of  the  United  States  do  you  think  is  comprised 
in  tliia  region  ?  4.  In  following  the  one  hundredth  meridian  of  longitude,  from 
the  Rio  Grande  to  Canada,  do  you  traverse  any  mountains  ?  5.  Through  how 
many  degrees  of  longitude  on  the  parallel  of  40°  may  you  pass  without  crossing  any 
mountains  ?  6.  Judging  from  the  course  of  the  rivers,  is  the  Mississippi  Valley 
more  elevated  in  the  northern  or  in  the  southern  part  ?  7.  Judging  from  the  same, 
which  must  be  the  lowest  juirt  of  this  valley,  tho  center  or  the  borders  ! 


28 


THE  UNITED   STATES. 


Minor  Features. — Point  out  (on  the  Physical  Map)  the  slope  from  the  Appala- 
chian Mountains  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean  ;  —  from  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains  to  the 
Pacific  Ocean. 

Summary.  —  In  the  United  States  are  one  great  plain  and  two  lesser  plains ; 
two  great  mountain  systems ;  one  great  plateau:  what  are  the  plains? — what  the 
mountain  systems  ?  —  what  is  the  plateau  1 
Rivers  and  Lakes. 

Bivers.  —  In  the  following  table  are  thirteen  large  rivers  of  ihe  United  States, 
grouped  by  systems.     Describe  each  river. 


BOCKT  HODNTAIHS  . 


ArPALACHIAH  MODHTAINS 


Rivers. 

Columbia. 

Colorado. 

Missouri. 
Arkansas. 
Bio  Grande. 

Connecticut. 

Hudson. 

Savannah. 

Alabama. 

Cliattahoo'chee. 

Ohio. 

Cumberland. 

Tennessee. 


Syst€m. 
I  Pacific  Syotkm. 

V  OuLr  STsrnui. 
\  Atlantic  Ststem. 

Gdlf  Ststkm. 


Lakes.  — 1.  Kama  the  five  Great  Lakes  on  the  northeastern  border  of  the  United 
States.  2.  Where  is  Lake  Champlain  ?  3.  In  which  States  are  lakes  the  most 
numerous  ?    4.  Where  is  Great  Salt  Lake  ? 


GENERAL    DESCRIPTION. 

1.  Its  Rank.  —  The  United  States  is  the  largest  and  most  im- 
portant country  in  North  America.  It  ranks  as  one  of  the  five 
most  populous,  powerful,  wealthy,  and  progressive  nations  on  the 
globe,  and  is  the  leading  Eepublic  in  the  world. 

2.  Position.  —  It  occupies  the  most  valuable  part  of  North 
America,  being  (Alaska  excepted)  whoUy  in  the  North  Temperate 
Zone,  between  Canada  on  the  north  and  Mexico  and  the  West 
Indies  on  the  south. 

8.  Its  Extent.  —  Our  country  has  nearly  the  same  area  as 
Europe.  From  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  the  average 
length  is  about  2,500  miles  ;  and  from  north  to  south  the  average 
breadth  is  about  1,300  miles. 

Area  (including  Alaska),  3,825,000  square  miles. 

4.  Divisions.  —  Following  the  natural  divisions  of  North  Amer- 
ica, we  may  divide  the  United  States  into  three  great  regions :  — 

Atlantic  Plain. 


Atlantic  Highland  and  Plain  . 


Mississippi  Valley 


Pacific  Highland  and  Slope . 


Appalachian  Mountain  Eegion. 
Mississippi  Valley. 

(westward  to) 
.  The  Plains. 
Rocky  Moimtains. 
Pacific  Plateau. 

Sierra  Nevada  and  Cascade  Banges. 
Pacific  Slope. 


I.    ATLANTIC    HIGHLAND   AND    PLAIN. 

5.  Surface.  —  As  regards  surface  this  region  consists  of  two 
parts,  the  Appalachian  Mountahis  and  the  Atlantic  Plain. 

6.  The  Appalachian  Mountains  extend  from  the  St.  Lawrence 
River  in  a  southwesterly  direction  to  the  State  of  Alabama,  where 
they  decUne  into  foothills,  and  finally  disappear. 

7.  The  Atlantic  Plain  is  the  slope  from  the  Appalachian  Moun- 
tains to  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  It  varies  in  width  according  as  the 
mountains  approach  or  recede  from  the  sea-coast.  In  New  Eng- 
land it  is  about  fifty  miles  wide;  at  the  mouth  of  the  Hudson 
River  it  narrows  to  a  mere  strip  of  coast :  —  but  it  broadens  south- 
ward to  a  width  of  three  hundred  miles  in  North  Carolina. 

MAP.  —  On  the  Physical  Hap  trace  the  vaiTing  width  of  the  Atlantic  Plain  from  Maine 
to  Florida. 


Political  Divisions. 

States.  — 1.  Name  all  the  States  which  border  on  the  Atlantic  Ocean  from  north 
to  south.  2.  What  States  are  traversed  by  the  Appalachian  Mountain  System  ? 
3.  Five  States  are  in  a  region  enclosed  by  the  Ohio,  the  Mississippi,  and  the  Great 
Lakes  :  name  these  States.  4.  What  five  States  border  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  ? 
5.  Proceeding  down  the  Mississippi  from  its  source  to  its  mouth,  what  States  are  on 
the  left  bank  ?  —  on  the  right  bank  ?  6.  What  two  States  and  Tenitories  border 
on  the  Pacific  Ocean  ?  7.  What  States  and  Territories  would  we  traverse  in  going 
by  the  Pacific  Railroad  from  Omaha  (Nebraska)  to  San  Francisco  ? 

Cities. — The  following  cities  have  each  from  100,000  to  1,000,000  population  : — 

New  Yoik.  Chicago.  New  Orleans.  Detroit. 

Philadelphia.  B.iltimore.  San  Francisco.  Louisville. 

Brooklyn.  Boston.  Bufltilo.  Newark. 

St.  Louis.  Cincinnati.  Washington.  Jersey  City. 

Cleveland.  Providence.  Milwaukee.  Pittsburgh. 

1.  Which  of  these  are  seaports  ?  2.  Locate  each  of  these  seaports.  3.  Which  city 
is  farthest  north  ?  4.  What  is  its  latitude  ?  5.  Which  is  farthest  south  ?  6.  What 
is  its  latitude  ?  7.  Which  is  farthest  east  ?  8.  Which  is  farthest  west  ?  9.  What 
is  the  difference  in  longitude  between  Boston  and  San  Francisco  ?  10.  When  it  is 
noon  at  Washington,  wliat  time  is  it  at  Chicago  ?  —  at  San  Francisco?  11.  Which 
of  these  sixteen  cities  are  inland  cities  ?  12.  Wldch  are  lake  cities  ?  13.  Which 
are  on  the  Mississippi  or  its  tributaries  ?  14.  What  advantage  in  situation  has 
Chicago  ?  —  Buffalo  ?  —  St.  Louis  ?  —  Cincinnati  ?  15.  Locate  each  of  these  sixteen 
cities. 


8.  Elvers.  —  The  most  important  drainage  of  the  Atlantic  High- 
land and  Plain  is  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  In  addition  there 
are  two  minor  river  systems,  consisting  of  the  streams  flowing 
respectively  into  the  St.  Lawrence  and  the  Ohio  rivers. 

9.  Climate.  —  The  Atlantic  Highland  and  Plain,  though  wholly 
in  the  Temperate  Zone,  has  a  variety  of  climates.  Tlie  North 
Atlantic  section  is  naturally  colder  than  the  South  Atlantic  sec- 
tion. Also,  the  wintei-s  of  the  Atlantic  seaboard  are,  owing  to 
local  causes,  much  colder  than  those  of  the  Pacific  coast. 

10.  Besoxirces.  —  The  natural  wealth  of  this  region  lies  in  its 
mines  of  iron,  coal,  copper,  and  zinc,  and  its  slate,  marble,  and 
granite  quarries ;  in  its  forests,  affording  abundant  limiber  or  yield- 
ing naval  stores ;  in  its  unlimited  water-power ;  in  the  fertile  soil 
of  the  southern  section,  and  in  its  advantageous  situation  for 
commerce. 

IL  Industries.  —  The  leading  industries  are  manufacturing,  min- 
ing, lumbering,  agriculture,  the  fisheries,  and  commerce. 

11.    THE   MISSISSIPPI   VALLEY. 

12.  Description.  —  This  region,  the  southern  slope  of  the  Central 
Plain  of  North  America,  is  the  immense  Valley,  Plain,  or  Basin 
formed  by  the  long  eastern  slope  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the 
long  western  slope  of  the  Appalachian  Mountains.  It  occupies 
one  half  of  the  entire  area  of  the  United  States. 

13.  Surface.  —  Much  of  this  region  is  undulating,  parts  are  hilly, 
and  there  are  a  few  detached  mountain  districts;  but  on  the 
whole  the  surface  is  that  of  a  plain,  vt^ith  slopes  toward  the  center 
from  each  of  the  two  highland  regions,  and  a  general  slope  from 
the  Height  of  Land  southward  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

14.  Bivers.  —  The  Mississippi-Missouri  (length  4,200  miles)  —  the 
grandest  river  in  the  world  —  drains  this  region.  Both  the  Missis- 
sippi and  the  Missouri,  the  two  main  constituents  of  this  river, 
receive  numerous  tributaries,  great  and  small.  The  Mississippi 
Valley  is  drained  also  by  various  streams  not  tributary  to  the  Mis- 
sissippi, but  which  reach  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  by  other  outlets. 

15.  Climate.  —  The  Southern  section  has  a  semi-tropical  climate, 
with  mild  winters.  The  Northern  section  has  hot  and  sultry 
summers,  and  cold  winters,  with  heavy  snows. 


GENEKAL  DESCEIPTION  OF  THE  UNITED   STATES. 

■ 


29 


GEYSERS    AND    FIRE-BASINS    IN    THE    ROCKY    MOUNTAINS. 


16.  Eesources.  —  Among  the  natural  advantages  possessed  by 
the  Mississippi  Valley  are :  — 

I.  It  is  the  finest  agricultural  region  on  the  globe. 

II.  It  is  rich  in  valuable  minerals,  —  coal,  iron,  copper,  and  lead. 

III.  Its  forests  supply  abundant  lumber. 

IV.  Its  numerous  navigable  rivers  and  lakes,  and  the  even 
character  of  its  surface,  give  fine  facilities  for  transportation. 

17.  Industries.  —  The  great  industry  is  agriculture.  In  the 
Northern  section  are  the  com  and  wheat  growing  States ;  in  the 
Southern  section  are  the  cotton,  tobacco,  and  sugar  producing 
States. 

Manufacturing  is  largely  carried  on  in  the  Northern  section, 
and  is  rapidly  becoming  a  leading  industry. 

Lumbering,  mining,  and  grazing  are  very  important  occupations. 

18.  The  Plains.  —  The  name  The  Plaitis  is  given  to  a  section 
of  country  extending  a  considerable  distance  to  the  eastward  of 
the  Eocky  Mountains.  Unlike  the  rest  of  the  Mississippi  Valley, 
this  region  receives  but  little  rain,  and  a  large  portion  of  it  is 
sterile. 

Note.  —  The  meridian  of  97°  (Greenwich)  may  be  taken  as  marking  the  eastern 
limit  of  the  Plains. 
III.    PACIFIC  HIGHLAND. 

19.  Description.  —  The  Pacific  Highland  includes  the  great  moun- 
tain-plateau region,  extending  from  the  Rocky  Mountain  chain 
proper,  on  the  ea-st,  to  the  Sierra  Nevada  on  the  west 

20.  The  Bocky  Mountains  form  the  main  watershed  of  the 
United  States,  and  five  of  the  largest  rivers  —  the  Mis.souri, 
the  Rio  Grande,  the  Colorado,  the  Columbia,  and  Yukon  — 
have  their  head  streams  in  this  region.  Abundance  of  g<jld  is 
found  in  various  parts,  and  mining  is  the  principal  source  of 
wealth. 

2L  The  Pacific  Plateau  has  an  elevation  of  from  4,000  to  8,000 
feet.     It  includes  three  basins,  —  the  basins  of  the  Columbia  and 


Colorado  rivers,  and  between  them  the  "Great  Basin"  of  Utah. 
This  entire  region  is  with  few  exceptions  dry  and  sterile,  but  is 
exceedingly  rich  in  silver  and  gold.     Mining  is  laigely  carried  oa 

IV.    THE  PACIFIC  SLOPE. 

22.  Description.  —  The  Pacific  Slope  extends  from  the  crest  of 
the  Sierra  Nevada  and  Cascade  ranges  westward  to  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  Its  average  width  is  about  150  miles.  Between  these 
ranges  and  some  lower  elevations  along  the  coast  are  enclosed 
the  great  California  Valley  and  the  valleys  of  Oregon. 

23.  The  Climate  of  this  region  is  peculiar :  there  are  only  two 
seasons,  the  rainy  (winter)  and  the  diy  (summer). 

24.  Resources.  —  Gold,  silver,  and  quicksilver  are  found  in 
abundance  in  California;  but  the  Pacific  Slope  has  a  still  more 
important  source  of  wealth  in  its  fertile  soil,  its  vast  forests,  and 
its  advantages  for  commerce. 

25.  Industries.  —  Agriculture  is  the  leading  industry ;  next  come 
mining  and  manufacturing  in  California,  autl  lumbering  in  Oregon 
and  Washington  Territory.  The  Pacific  Slope  has  a  large  com- 
merce, carried  on  principally  through  the  port  of  San  Francisco. 


POLITICAL   DIVISIONS. 

The  United  States  consists  of  forty-two  Statks  and  seven 
organized  Tekkitories,  together  with  the  District  of  Columbia. 
The  States  and  Territories  may  be  classified,  according  to  their 
geographical  situation,  into  four  groups :  — 

1.  The  Atlantic  States,  occupying  the  Atlantic  Highland  and  Plain. 

2.  The  Centred  States,  or  StatCB  of  the  Mississippi  Valley.  These  arc  sub- 
divided into  tiie  North  Cciitriil  Stjites  and  the  .'^outh  Central  or  Gulf  States. 

3.  The  Mountain  States  and  Territories,  comprising  the  States  and 
Territories  of  the  Plains  and  Rocky  Mountain  Region. 

4.  The  Paclflo  States  and  Territories,  including  those  of  the  Pacific 
Slope  proper  and  those  of  the  Pacific  Plateau. 


30 


THE   UNITED    STATES. 


TOPICAL  OUTLINE  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  SPECIAL  STATE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Note  to  Teacher  and  Pupils.  —  In  beginning  the  study  of  the  Gteography  of  the  several  States  the  attention  of  Teachers  is  especially  called  to  the  mode 
of  treatment  employed  in  this  text-book.  The  matter  relating  to  each  State  is  set  forth  in  a  double  text :  1.  A  concise  General  text,  which  comes  first  and  is 
printed  in  the  larger  type  :  this  is  to  be  studied  by  all  classes.  2.  A  Special  Geography  of  each  State,  which  is  designed  for  use  only  by  classes  in  the  State 
referred  to.  Though  the  Special  Geography  is  quite  full,  yet,  in  view  of  the  importance  of  a  minute  knowledge  of  one's  own  State,  many  may  desire  to  carry 
the  study  of  local  geography  beyond  the  limits  of  the  matter  here  given.  With  the  view  of  aiding  teachers  and  pupils  in  doing  this,  a  Topical  Odtline 
for  the  study  of  State  Geography  is  presented  below.  When  a  class  takes  up  the  geography  of  its  own  State,  the  pupils  may  fill  out  the  Odtline.  The 
matter  given  in  this  book  under  the  Special  Geography  will  furnish  the  basis  for  doing  this.  Additional  material  should  then  be  gathered  from  all  possible 
sources,  —  from  parents,  books,  newspapers,  conversation,  etc.    After  the  topics  have  been  diacuased  in  the  class,  a  written  account  should  be  drawn  up. 


I.  Position  of  the  State. 

1.  By  latitude  and  longitude. 

2.  By  boundaries. 

a.  Natitra/,  as  an  ocean,  lake,  river,  etc. 

b.  Artificial,  —  that  it,  State  lines. 

II.  Outline. 

1.  That  of  some  mathematical  figure  (as 

Kansas,  a  parallelogram). 

2.  Irregular. 

III.  Extent. 

1.  Definite  siza 

a.  Greatest  length  in  miles. 

b.  Greatest  breadth  in  miles. 

C  Area  in  square  miles.  ^ 

2.  Comparative,  —  by  reference  to  some 

other  State  or  States. 

IV.  Coast  (jf  a  Seaboard  or  Lake  State). 

1.  Principal  projections. 

a.  Peninsulas.  h.  Capes. 

2.  Principal  indentations. 

a.  Gulfs.  b.  Ba^s,  etc. 

3.  Adjoining  islands. 

4.  Character  as  regards  harbors,  etc. 

V.  Surface. 

1.  [At  the   home  of  the    pupil,  —  local 

geography.] 

2.  General  characteristics ;  as, 

a.  Level,    b.  Undulating,     c.  Mountainous. 

3.  Mountains. 

a.  System  to  which  they  belong. 

b.  Manges,  or  detached  groups  or  heights. 

c.  Interior  or  boundary  mountains. 

d.  Forest -covered  or  hare. 

4.  Valleys,  —  Plains,  —  Prairies. 

5.  Direction  of  slopes. 

6.  Natural  curiosities  and  scenery. 

VI.  Rivers. 

1.  Classification  by  river-system. 

2.  Description  of  particular  rivers. 

a.  Length  and  size. 

b.  Availability  for  navigation. 

c.  Availability  for  water-power. 

3.  [Rivers  of  the  particular  locality.] 

VII.  Lakes. 

1.  Description. 


2.  Uses. 

a.  As  yielding  fish. 


b.  For  navigation. 


VIII.  Climate. 

1.  As  determined  by  latitude. 

2.  As  modified   by  particular   causes, — 

altitude,  proximity  to  the  sea  or  the 
Great  Lakes,  winds,  etc. 

3.  [At  the   home   of  the  pupil,  —  local 

geography.] 

IX.  Natural  Advantages. 

1.  [At   the   home   oi'  the   pupil,  —  local 

geography.] 

2.  On  the  surface  of  the  earth. 

a.  Nature  of  the  soil  with  reference  to  agri- 

culture. 

b.  Forests,  —  nature  and  uses  of  the  woods. 

c.  Facilities  for   transportation    afforded  by 

the  sea,  rivers,  lakes,  etc. 

3.  Within  the  earth. 

a.  Useful  minerals   and  metals,  —  as   coal, 

building  material,  iron,  copper,  lead,  etc. 

b.  Precious  metals,  —  as  gold  and  silver. 

4.  In  the  waters. 

a.  Sea-fisheries. 

b.  Lake  and  river  fisheries, 

X.  Industries,  or  Occupations. 

1.  Agriculture. 

a.  Relative  importance  among  the  industries 

of  the  State. 

b.  The  crops  raised. 

c.  Statistics  of  crops. 

d.  Cattle,  sheep,  and  hog  raising. 

2.  Manufacturing. 

a.  Relative  importance. 

b.  Articles  produced. 

c.  Statistics  of  manufactures. 

3.  Mining. 

a.  Metals  or  minerals  found. 

b.  Mines,  to  what  extent  worked. 

4.  Lumbering. 

a.  Locality  of  the  forests. 

b.  Description  of  the  method. 

5.  The  i'isheries. 

a.  Locality  of  the  fisheries. 

b.  Kinds  offish  taken, 

6.  Commerce. 

a.  What  is  exported. 

b.  What  is  imported. 

c.  Means  of  transportation. 

XI.  Internal  Improvements. 

1.  Eailroads. 

a.  Local  railroads. 

b.  Trunk-lines. 


2.  Canals. 

3.  Navigation  on  lakes  and  rivers. 

XII.  Education. 

1.  Higher  institutions. 

a.  Universities  or  Colleges,  [State  University, 

State  Agricultural  College,  etc.'] 

b.  Schools  of  Lam,  Medicine,  Theology. 

c.  Normal  Schools. 

2.  Common  and  High  Schools. 

a.  Number  of  pupils  attending. 

b.  State  Superintendent  and  Board  of  Educa- 

tion. 

c.  Local  School-officers. 

XIII.  Government. 

1.  Legislative  branch. 

a.  Names  of  its  '  Houses.' 

b.  Time  of  election  of  members. 

c.  Sessions  of  the  Legislature. 

2.  Executive  department. 

a.  Term  of  the  Governor,  and  time  of  election. 

b.  Name  of  the  present  Governor. 

3.  The  Judiciary. 

a.  Supreme  Court. 

b.  Circuit  Courts. 

4.  [County,  township,  or  city  ofi&cers, — 

local  geography.] 

5.  Benevolent  institutions. 

XIV.  Coimties. 

1.  County  in  which  the  pupil  resides. 

2.  Number  of  counties  in  the  State. 

XV.  History. 

1.  Early  history. 

a.  Colonial  period. 

b.  Territorial  period. 

c.  Date  of  admission  of  the  State. 

2.  Subsequent  growth  and  present  popu- 

lation. 

3.  Distinguished  men. 

XVI.  Cities. 

1.  The  Capital,  and  the  Metropolis. 

a.  Population. 

b.  Advantages  of  location. 

c.  Industries  pursued. 

d.  Description  of  striking  objects. 

2.  Other  leading  cities. 

a.  Population. 

b.  Advantages  of  location. 

c.  Industries  pursued. 
^~  For  population  of  places  named  in  the  lista  of  cities 

nnder  each  State,  see  Table  of  Cities,  page  139. 


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32 


THE  ATLANTIC   STATES. 


THE   ATLANTIC    STATES, 


INTRODUCTION. 

L  Situation.  —  The  Atlantic  States  occupy  the  Atlantic  High- 
land and  Plain,  and  extend  from  Maine  to  Florida. 

2.  Size.  —  This  section  includes  only  about  one  fourteenth  of 
the  area  of  the  United  States,  but  in  it  is  nearly  one  half  of  the 
population  and  wealth  of  our  country. 

3.  PhysicalFeatures.  —  Certain  physical  features  are  common  to 
most  of  the  States  of  this  section.  There  is,  first,  a  level,  sandy 
plain  which  extends  from  the  seaboard  a  varying  distance  into  the 
interior ;  this  is  succeeded  to  the  west  by  the  "  Middle  Country," 
with  a  rolling  or  hilly  surface ;  and  this  foothill  region,  in  turn, 
rises  into  the  ridges  of  the  Appalachian  Mountain  system. 

4.  Divisions.  —  Notwithstanding  this  similarity  in  geographical 
features,  there  are  such  marked  diiferences  between  the  several 
parts  of  the  Atlantic  seaboard  that  it  is  usual  to  divide  the 
States  occupying  it  into  distinct  groups. 

5.  I'irst  Difference.  —  A  great  difference  of  latitude.  Between 
the  northern  and  the  southern  extremities  of  this  section  there  is 
an  interval  of  twenty-four  degrees  of  latitude,  or  nearly  1,700  miles. 

6.  Second  Difference.  —  Eesulting  from  the  difference  in  latitude 
is  a  difference  of  climate.  The  northern  part  of  this  section  belongs 
to  the  cool-temperate,  the  southern  part  to  the  warm-temperate 
zone.  The  ice  so  plentifully  cut  in  Maine  and  Massachusetts  finds 
a  ready  market  in  the  winterless  Carolinas  and  Florida. 


7.  Third  Difference.  —  Eesulting  from  the  difference  in  climate 
is  a  difference  in  productions.  As  illustrating  this  fact,  cotton, 
rice,  and  oranges,  which  cannot  be  grown  in  the  North  Atlantic 
region,  flourish  finely  in  the  South  Atlantic  States. 

8.  Fourth  Difference.  —  Eesulting  from  the  difference  in  produc- 
tions and  in  natural  resources  is  a  difference  in  the  industries 
engaged  in  by  the  people. 

I.  New  England  Industries.  —  The  water-power  and  the  forests  of  New 
England  have  made  manufacturing,  himbering,  and  ship-building  the  leading 
interests  in  that  section. 

II.  Southern  Industries.  —  The  warm  climate  and  the  wide  extent  of  the 
coast  plain  in  the  South  Atlantic  States  are  favorable  to  agriculture  ;  and 
hence  we  find  the  raising  of  the  staples,  cotton,  tobacco  and  rice,  the  principal 
industry  in  that  section. 

III.  Middle  States  Industries.  —  The  coal  and  iron  of  the  Middle  States, 
the  fine  harbors  on  the  seaboard,  and  the  easy  means  of  communication  with 
the  West,  have  rendered  mining,  manufacturing,  and  commerce  the  most  im- 
portant occupations  in  that  section. 

9.  Groups  of  states.  —  The  Atlantic  States  are  usually  divided 
into  three  groups, — the  New  England  States,  the  Middle  Atlantic 
States,  and  the  South  Atlantic  States. 


NEW 

ENGLAND 

STATES. 


Maine. 

New  Hampshire. 

Vermont. 

Massachusetts. 

Rhode  Island. 

Connecticut. 


MIDDLE 
ATLANTIC 
STATES. 


New  York. 
New  Jersey. 
Pennsylvania, 
Maryland. 
Delaware. 
[Dist.  of  Columbia.] 


SOTTTH 
ATLANTIC 
STATES. 


Virginia. 
West  Virginia. 
North  Carolina. 
South  Carolina. 
Georgia, 
l^  Florida. 


MAP  STUDIES   ON   THE   ATLANTIC   STATES. 


These  questions  are  designed  as  preliminary  studies,  wUcIi  are  to  be  extended  at 
pleasure  in  connection  witli  the  Special  Geography  of  each  State. 

NEW    ENGLAND. 

Position  and  States.  —  1.  Bound  New  England.  2.  Name  and  boimd  each  of 
the  States  of  New  England.  3.  Give  the  abbi'eviation  of  the  name  of  each  of  the 
States.     Alls.   Me.,  N.  H.,  Vt.,  Mass.,  R.  I.,  Conn. 

Sea-Coast  —  1.  What  three  bays  on  the  coast  of  Me.  ?  2.  Wliat  three  on  the 
coast  of  Mass.  ?  3.  What  bay  on  the  coast  of  R.  I.  ?  4.  What  sound  south  of 
Conn.  ?    5.   Which  State  has  no  sea-coast  ?    6.   Name  the  four  largest  islands. 

Surface.  —  1.  What  is  the  longest  mountain  range  in  New  England  ?  2.  What  is 
it  called  south  of  Vt.  ?  3.  In  what  State  are  the  White  Mountains  ?  4.  Where 
is  Wachu'sett  Mt.  ?  — Mt.  Washington?  — Mt.  Katah'din? 

Rivers  and  Lakes.  —  1.  What  are  the  three  longest  rivers  in  Me.  ?  2.  What  is 
the  principal  river  of  N.  H.  ?  3.  What  boundary  river  between  N.  H.  and  Vt.  ? 
4.  What  river  flows  into  Narragansett  Bay  ?  5.  What  is  the  general  direction  of  the 
rivers  of  New  England  ?  6.  What  streams  are  finally  drained  into  the  St.  Lawrence 
River  ?    7.  Describe  the  following  lakes  :  Moosehead,  Winnepesau'kee,  Champlain. 

Cities.  —  1.  State  the  location  of  each  of  these  leading  cities  :  Boston,  —  Provi- 
dence, —  New  Haven,  —  Worcester,  —  Lowell,  —  Cambridge,  —  Hartford,  —  Law- 
rence, —  Portland,  —  Manchester,  —  Bangor,  —  Burlington.  2.  Which  of  these  are 
seaport  cities  ?    3.  Which  of  these  are  south  of  Boston  ? —  north  of  Boston  ? 

MIDDLE    STATES. 
(Map  of  Atlantic  States,  previous  page ;  or  Special  Map,  page  38.) 

Position  and  States.  —  1.  Whichare  the  Middle  States?  Ans.  They  are  New 
York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  and  Delaware.  2.  Name  and  bound  each. 
3.  Which  two  have  a  partial  boundary  on  one  or  more  of  the  Great  Lakes.  4.  Give  the 
abbreviation  of  the  name  of  each  of  these  States.  Ans.  N.  Y.,  N.  J.,  Penn.,  Md.,  DeL 

Sea-Coast.  —  1.  What  are  the  three  principal  inbreakings  of  the  sea  in  this  sec- 
tion ?  2.  Name  three  capes.  3.  What  large  island  forms  part  of  N.  Y  ?  Ans.  Long 
Island.     4.  Which  State  has  no  ocean  front  ? 

Surface. —  1.  In  which  of  the  Middle  States  are  the  ranges  of  the  Appalachian  sys- 
tem most  numerous  and  continuous  ?  2.  Do  any  of  these  ranges  extend  into  N.  Y.  ? 
—  into  N.  J.  ?  3.  What  detached  mountain  region  in  Northern  N.  Y.  ?  4.  Where 
are  the  Catskill  Mountains  ?    5.  Is  the  larger  part  of  N.  Y.  east  or  west  of  the  moun- 


tains ?  6.  Judging  from  the  course  of  the  rivers,  in  what  direction  does  Western  N.  Y. 
slope  ?  7.  Which  part  of  N.  J.  belongs  to  the  Atlantic  Plain  ?  8.  Toward  what 
river  does  Western  Penn.  slope  ?    9.  Which  part  of  Md.  is  mountainous  ? 

Rivers. —  1.  Describe  the  principal  river  of  N.  Y.  ?  2.  What  branch  of  the 
Ohio  has  its  source  in  N.  Y.  ?  3.  Name  three  N.  Y.  rivers  flowing  into  Lake  Ontario. 
4.  What  boundary  river  has  N.  J.  ?  5.  Describe  the  Susquehanna.  6.  What  two 
branches  of  the  Ohio  in  Penn.  ?     7.  What  boundaiy  river  has  Md.  ? 

Cities.  —  1.  State  the  location  of  each  of  the  following  leading  cities  :  New  York, 
—  Philadelphia,  —  Brooklyn,  —  Baltimore,  —  Pittsburgh,  —  Buflalo,  —  Newark,  — 
Jersey  City,  —  Rochester,  —  Allegheny  City,  —  Albany,  —  Wilmington,  —  Wash- 
ington (D.  C).  2.  Which  of  these  are  seaport  cities  ?  3.  Which  are  State  capitals  ? 
4.  Which  of  these  are  north  of  Philadelphia  ?  —  Which  south  ?  5.  Which  is  the 
most  northern  ?  —  the  most  southern  ?    6.  Which  is  the  national  capital? 

SOUTH    ATLANTIC    STATES. 
(Map  of  Atlantic  States,  previous  page ;  for  Georgia  and  Florida,  Map,  page  48.) 

Position  and  States. —  1.  West  Virginia  is  the  mo.st  northern  and  Florida 
the  most  southern  of  the  South  Atlantic  States  :  what  four  States  lie  between  these  ? 
2.  Name  and  bound  each  State.  3.  Give  the  abbreviation  of  the  name  of  each 
State.    Ans.  Va.,  W.  Va.,  N.  C,  S.  C,  Ga.,  Fla. 

Sea-Coast.  —  1.  What  is  the  direction  of  the  coast  from  Cape  Hatteras  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Savannah  River  ?  2.  Where  are  capes  Charles  and  Henry  ?  —  Cape 
Hatteras  ?  3.  Name  two  sounds  in  N.  C.  4.  Where  is  Cape  Fear  ?  5.  Name  a 
bay  in  S.  C.  6.  What  is  the  most  southern  cape  in  Florida  ?  7.  What  natural 
division  of  land  is  Florida  ?    8.  Where  is  Apalach'ee  Bay  ? 

Surface.  —  1.  Wliich  part  of  these  States  does  the  Appalachian  system  traverse  ? 
2.  Which  State  is  mainly  west  of  it  ?  3.  Where  is  Mt.  Mitchell  ?  4.  Ascertain  by 
means  of  the  scale  of  miles  the  breadth  of  the  Atlantic  Plain  in  these  States. 

Rivers.  —  1.  What  boundary  river  has  Va.  on  the  north  ?  2.  To  what  system  of 
rivers  do  most  of  the  streams  in  W.  Va.  belong  ?  3.  Describe  the  James  River. 
4.  What  river  flows  into  Albemarle  Sound  ?  5.  Describe  the  Great  Pedee  River. 
6.  Name  the  principal  river  of  Ga.  flowing  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  —  into  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico.     7.  Describe  St.  Johns  River.     8.  What  large  lake  in  Florida  ? 

Cities.  —  1.  Locate  each  of  these  leading  cities  :  Richmond,  —  Charleston,  —  Sa- 
vannah, —  Atlanta,  —  Norfolk,  —  Wheeling,  —  Wilmington,  —  Columbia,  —  Jack- 
sonville.    2.  Which  of  these  are  seaport  cities  ?    3.  Which  are  State  capitals  ? 


THE  ATLANTIC   STATES, 


MAINE. 
L  The  physical  features  of  this  State  are :  the  great  forests  of 
pine,  spruce,  and  hemlock  in  the  northern  part ;  the  large  number 
of  its  lakes  and  rivers ;  its  extensive  rocky  sea-coast,  and  its  nu- 
merous good  harbors. 

2.  Industries.  —  The  vast  forests  give  rise  to  an  extensive  lum- 
ber-trade and  to  ship-building ;  the  manufacturing  interest  is  very 
important,  owing  to  abundant  available  water-power;  the  sea- 
fisheries  employ  a  large  number  of  people. 

3.  Cities.  —  Portland,  the  chief  seaport  and  largest  city,  has 
one  of  the  best  harbors  on  the  Atlantic  coast.  It  has  extensive 
railroad  communication,  and  is  the  main  winter  outlet  for  the  St. 
Lawrence  basin.     Augusta  is  the  capital. 


SPECIAL  OEOaRAFHT  FOR  MAINE  CLASSES. 

ty  Maine  classes  should  now  make  a  full  study  of  the  geography  of  their  State,  following  the 
Outline  on  page  30.    Refer  to  the  County  map,  page  33. 

Area,  33,040  square  miles.    Population  (census  of  1880),  648,936. 

Eztent.  —  Maine  occupies  more  than  half  the  surface  of  New  England. 
Its  greatest  length  is  about  250  miles  ;  greatest  breadth,  190  miles. 

Sea-coast.  —  The  sea-coast  is  penetrated  by  numerous  bays  and  inlets,  many 
of  which  afford  excellent  harbors.  The  length  of  the  coast  in  a  straight  line 
from  Kit'tery  Point  to  Eastport  is  about  230  miles,  but  the  deep  curves  of  the 
bays  and  estuaries  give  an  actual  shore-line  of  nearly  2,500  miles. 

Its  fine  beaches,  breezy  headlands,  and  picturesque  islands  are  becoming 
attractive  resorts  for  summer  visitors  from  Canada  and  the  States. 

Surface.  —  The  surface  is,  in  general,  pleasantly  varied  by  hills  and  valleys. 
There  is  no  connected  ridge  of  mountains,  but  in  the  central  and  northwestern 
parts  of  the  State  are  numerous  isolated  mountain-summits,  the  loftiest  of 
which  is  Mount  Katah'din  (5,385  feet  in  height). 

River  System.  —  All  parts  of  the  State  are  abundantly  supplied  with 
streams,  which  for  the  most  part  rise  in  or  flow  through  lakes. 

The  PenoVscot  is  navigable  for  the  largest  vessels  to  Bangor  (60  miles),  and 
is  greatly  used  for  floating  down  logs  from  the  northern  forests. 

The  Kennebec',  Androscog'gin,  and  Saco  [saw^ko]  supply  extensive  water-power. 

Lakes.  —  The  lakes,  of  which  there  are  hundreds,  form  one  of  the  charac- 
teristic features  of  the  State.  Many  of  them  are  noted  for  their  picturesque 
scenery,  while  others  afford  channels  of  communication.  Moosehead  Lake, 
the  largest,  is  35  miles  in  length ;  Ghesun'cook,  about  20  miles  ;  Seba'go,  12. 


Forests.  —  One  half  of  the  State  is  still  covered  by  almost  unbroken  forests 
of  pine,  hemlock,  spruce,  and  oak  ;  hence  lumbering  is  one  of  the  principal  in- 
dustries. The  lumber  crop  is  about  one  hundred  million  feet  annually.  The 
value  of  the  sawed  lumber  is  over  10  millions  of  dollars  a  year.  Hemlock- 
bark,  for  tanning  purposes,  is  an  important  article  of  export. 

Ship-building.  —  The  State  has  long  been  the  foremost  in  ship-building. 
This  industry  is  favored  by  the  great  abundance  of  sliip-building  material  and 
by  the  many  excellent  seaports  of  "  hundred-harbored  Maine." 

Fisheries.  —  In  the  value  of  the  products  of  its  fisheries  thi.?  State  ranks 
next  to  Massachusetts.  Many  hundreds  of  fishing-smacks  and  schooners  are 
engaged  in  mackerel-catching,  and  in  cod-fishing  on  the  Grand  Banks. 

Manufactures.  —  The  manufacturing  interests  are  large  and  increasing. 
Leading  articles  of  manufacture  are  sawed  lumber,  cottons,  woolens,  tanned 
and  curried  leather,  boots  and  shoes,  lime,  etc. 

Agriculttu'e.  —  The  best  fanning  sections  are  in  the  valley  of  the  St.  John 
and  between  the  Penobscot  and  the  Kennebec  rivers.  The  leading  products 
are  potatoes,  rye,  oats,  barley,  buckwheat,  com,  orchard  and  dairy  products. 

Bfliuerals.  —  Lime  and  granite  are  extensively  distributed.  Piscat'aquis 
County  furnishes  excellent  iron,  and  abounds  in  superior  slate. 

Education.  —  Maine  has  an  excellent  system  of  Common,  High,  and  Nor- 
mal schools.  The  higher  institutions  of  learning  are  Bowdoin  [bo'dn]  College 
at  Brunswick,  the  State  College  of  Agriculture  at  O'rono,  near  Bangor,  Bates 
College  at  Lewiston,  and  Colby  University  at  Waterville. 

Cities.  —  Besides  Portland  and  Augusta  the  cities  are  :  — 


Names. 


Bangor. 

lewiston. 

Auburn, 

Biddeford. 

Saco. 

Bath. 

Bockland. 

Calais. 
Belfast. 

Ellsworth. 

Gardiner. 

Hallowell. 


Advantages  of  Location. 


Head  of  navigation  on  the  Penobscot 
Elver. 

Falls  of  the  Androscoggin. 

Falls  of  the  Saco. 

Near  month  of  the  Kennebec  River. 
On  Penobscot  Bay. 

On  St  Croix  [Aroi]  Kiver. 
On  Penobscot  Bay. 

Proximity  to  the  coast. 

On  the  Kennebec  River. 

Head  of  navigation  on  the  Kennebec 
River. 


Industries  and  Characteristics. 


Immense  business  in  sawing  and  shipping 

lumber.      Ship-building.      Miscellaneous 

manufacturing. 
Manufacture  of  cotton  and  woolen  goods, 

lumber,  and  machinery.     Inland  trade. 
Manufacture   of   cotton-goods  and    sawed 

lumber. 
Extensive  ship-building. 
Ship-building.      Lime-burning  (IJ  million 

casks  a  year). 
Manufacture  of  lumber.    Ship-building. 
Ship-building.    Manufacture  of  paper,  shoes, 

clothing.     Agricultural  trade. 
Lumber  trade  and  working  in  wood.    Cod 

and  mackerel  fishing. 
Manufacture  of  paper,  boards,  woolen  goods, 

springs  and  axles,  furniture,  etc. 
Extensive   granite-quarries.       Manufacture 

of  cotton-goods,  oil-carpet,  wire,  etc. 


'  For  population  see  Table,  page  139. 


NEW  HAMPSHIRE  AND  VERMONT. 


35 


NEW    HAMPSHIRE. 


L  Physical  Features. — The  nortli- 
.em  part  is   covered  with  granite 
mountains,   clad   in   native    forest. 
-"'■  The  State  is  noted  for  the  beauty 
of  its  lake  and  mountain  scenery. 
2.  The  leading  industries  are  (1) 
manufacturing,  fur  which  the  abun- 
dant water-power  of  the  State  affords 
great  advantages ;  and  (2)  agriculture,  pasturage,  and  dairying. 

3.  Cities.  —  Manchester,  the  chief  city,  is  largely  engaged  in 
manufacturing  cotton,  woolen,  and  linen  goods,  machineiy,  etc. 
CoNCOKD,  the  capital,  is  also  a  maniifactuiing  point. 


1H£  WHITI  MOUNTAINS. 


SPECIAIi  aX20aRAPH7  FOR  NE'W  HAMPSHIRE  CLASSES. 

lar  "  N'ew  Hampshire  classes  should  now  make  a  full  study  of  the  geography  of  their  State,  fol- 
lowing the  Outline  on  page  30.     Refer  to  the  County  map,  page  33. 

Area,  9,305  square  miles.    Population  (census  of  1880),  346,901. 

Outline  and  Extent.  —  This  State  has  the  form  of  a  triangle,  the  base  rest- 
ing on  Massachusetts.  From  north  to  south  its  length  is  168  miles,  and  its 
width  from  east  to  west  is  from  90  to  20  miles. 

Surface.  —  The  State  belongs  almost  wholly  to  the  Atlantic  Highland  re- 
gion, —  the  Atlantic  Plain  being  represented  only  by  a  small  portion  in  the 
southeast  extending  a  distance  of  20  or  30  miles  from  the  sea. 

The  White  Mountains,  a  disconnected  group  of  the  Appalachian  system,  con- 
stitute the  most  prominent  physical  feature  of  the  State.  Mount  Washing- 
ton (6,288  feet  high)  is  one  of  the  loftiest  peaks  of  this  entire  system. 

Rivers.  —  The  rivers  of  this  State  are  of  the  highest  importance  on  account 
of  their  water-power.  The  Connecticut  and  Piscatfaqua  —  the  latter  formed  by 
the  junction  of  the  Salmon  Falls  and  Co-che'co  rivers  —  are  boundary  streams. 
The  Merrimac  with  its  branches,  in  its  course  through  this  State  and  Massa- 
cliusetts,  moves  the  machinery  of  more  mills  than  any  other  river  in  the  world. 

Manufactures.  —  Manufacturing,  the  leading  interest,  includes  cotton  and 
woolen  good.s,  iron-ware  and  machinery,  boots  and  shoes,  and  sawed  lumber. 

Agriculture.  — Except  in  the  intervales  along  the  Merrimac  and  the  Con- 
necticut rivers  the  soil  needs  careful  cultivation  to  produce  large  crops.  The 
mountain  pastures  afford  fine  grazing,  and  the  dairy-products  are  important 

Places.  —  Besides  Manchester  and  Concord  the  principal  places  are  :  — 


KamM. 


5athaa, 

Dover. 

Portimoath. 

Keene. 

Ezet«r. 

Hanover. 


Advantage*  of  Location. 


Jonction  of  the  Naabaa  with  the 

Merrimac  River. 
Lower  falls  of  the  Cocheco  River. 

Fine  harbor  near  the  mouth  of  the 

Piacataqus  River. 
On  Ashnelot  River. 


On  Exeter  River. 

On  ConnecUcnt  River. 


IndoBtries  and  Characteristics. 


Cotton    manufactures,    machine-shops,    and 

•hoo-shope. 
Manufacture  of  cotton  and  woolen  goods,  and 

shoes. 
Manutteturea  and  commerce. 

Manufacture  of  Iron  and  wood  work,  woolen 

goods  and  carriage*. 
Manufactures.     Seat  of   Phillip*  Academy, 

founded  In  1781. 
Beat  of  Dartmouth  College,  founded  In  1709. 


VERMONT. 
L  Physical    Features.  —  Vermont   is  traversed  throughout  its 
whole   extent  from   north   to   south   by   the   Green  Mountains. 
These  are  covered  in  many  places  with  hard-wood  forests,  and 
enclose  beautifid  valleys.     This  State  has  no  sea-coast 

2.  The  leading  industries  are  (1)  agriculture,  which  is  successfully 
carried  on  in  the  fertile  mountain  vaUeys  and  in  the  valley  of  the 
Connecticut ;  (2)  stock-raising,  to  which  the  mountain  pastures  are 
well  adapted :  the  dairy-products  are  extensive  and  valuable. 

3.  Places.  —  Burlington,  the  largest  place,  has  considerable  lake- 
trade  and  lumber-trade;  it  is  the  seat  of  the  University  of  Ver- 
mont.    MoNTPEUEB  [mont-peeHycr]  is  the  capital 


SPECIAL  GEOGRAPHY  FOR  VERMONT  CI.ASSES. 

HT"  Vermont  classes  should  now  nmke  a  full  study  of  the  geography  of  their  State,  following  the 
Outline  on  page  30.     Refer  to  the  County  map,  [lage  33. 

Area,   9,565  square  miles.    Population  (census  of  1880),  332,286. 

Extent.  —  Its  length  from  north  to  south  is  157  miles,  and  its  breadth  from 
eu.st  to  west,  from  40  to  92  miles  ;  its  widest  part  is  on  the  northern  State-line. 

Surface.  — •  The  Green  Mountains,  which  form  the  most  striking  feature  in 
this  State,  are  a  range  of  the  Appalachian  system,  —  the  most  contmuous  range 
of  that  system  in  New  England.  In  the  center  they  divide  into  two  branches  : 
the  western  branch,  continuing  in  a  northerly  direction,  sinks  gradually  till  it 
terminates  near  the  northern  boundary  ;  the  eastern  branch  extends  northeast, 
and  passing  into  Canada  is  lost  on  the  shores  of  the  river  St.  Lawrence. 

Tlie  highest  elevations  are  Camel's  Hiunp  and  Mount  Mansfield. 

Rivers.  —  Though  well  watered,  the  State  has  no  large  streams  with  their 
courses  entirely  within  its  borders. 

The  Connecticut  flows  along  the  entire  eastern  border.  Its  numerous  trib- 
utaries, such  as  the  Wells,  White,  etc.,  are  mountain  streams  aflfording  valuable 
mill-sites.  Into  Lake  Champlain  flow  the  Missis'quoi,  Lamoille',  and  Winoos'ki, 
or  Onion,  and  other  creeks. 

Lakes.  —  Lake  Chami>lain  bounds  the  State  on  the  west  for  105  miles.  It 
is  a  noble  sheet  of  water,  navigated  by  the  largest  steamers.  Next  in  size  is 
Lake  Memphrema'gog  (30  miles  long)  on  the  northern  border.  In  the  interior 
are  various  minor  lakes. 

Agriculture.  —  Vermont  is  in  the  main  an  agricultural  and  a  grazing  State. 
The  intervales  have  a  rich  fertile  soil,  as  have  also  the  uplands  in  many  places. 
The  principal  crops  are  hay,  oats,  com,  wheat,  buckwheat,  and  potatoes. 

Stock-Raising  and  Dairying.  —  The  mountain  pastures  are  finely  adapted 
to  the  feeding  of  cattle,  sheep,  and  horses.  The  yearly  wool-clip  is  large. 
Thousand  of  tons  of  butter  and  cheese  are  made  every  year. 

Other  Lidustries.  —  Though  not  so  exten.sively  or  exclusively  engaged  in 
manufacturing  as  the  other  New  England  States,  Vermont  devotes  considerable 
attention  to  this  branch  of  industry.  Woolen  goods,  boots  and  shoes,  steam- 
engines,  carriages,  and  weighing-scales  are  among  the  many  things  turned  out 
Several  thousand  tons  of  maple-sugar  are  made  every  year. 

Minerals.  —  Marbles  of  fine  quality  abound,  and  the  quarries  are  worked 
at  various  points.  Slate  quarries  are  worked  on  the  Connecticut.  A  con- 
siderable quantity  of  copperas  is  manufactured  from  iron-pyrites. 

Places.  —  In  addition  to  the  metropolis  and  the  capital,  the  principal 
places  are :  — 


Karnes. 


Sntland. 

St.  Albans. 

Brattleboro. 

St.  Johnsbnry 
Brandon. 

Northfleld. 

Hiddlabnry. 

Woods  took. 


Advantage*  of  location. 


On  Otter  Creek. 

Proximity  to  Lake  Champlain. 

On  the  Connecticnt  River. 

On  the  Passumpsic  River. 

On  Otter  Cieek.     Rich  in  minerals. 

On  Vermont  Central  Railroad. 

Otter  Creek  Fall*. 

On  Quechwe  River. 


Indnstrie*  and  Characteristic*. 


Extensive  quarries  of  white  marble.  Mar- 
ble trade.     Manufacturing. 

Manufacture  of  cars.  Trade  In  dairy-prod- 
ucts, etc. 

Manufacture  of  organs,  fumltuie,  ete 
Seat  of  the  State  Insane  Asylum. 

Pairluinks's  scales  manufactory. 

Manufacture  of  woolen  goods,  leather, 
boots  and  shoes,  etc. 

Manufactures  and  slate-quarriea  Vermont 
Military  Institute. 

Marble  trade  and  various  manufactures. 
Seat  of  Middlebury  College,  founded  In 
1800. 

Manufactures  and  local  trade. 


36 


THE  ATLANTIC   STATES. 


MASSACHUSETTS. 

L  Its  Bank.  —  Massachusetts  ranks  as  the  foremost  State  of 
New  England  and  as  one  of  the  leading  manufacturing  States  in  the 
Union.  ■   In  wealth  and  commerce  it  is  second  only  to  New  York. 

2.  Physical  Features.  —  The  western  part  is  mountainous,  the 
centra.1  and  northeastern  parts  are  hilly,  the  southeastern  part  is 
generally  low  and  sandy. 

a  The  leading  industries  are  (1)  manufacturing;  (2)  commerce; 
(3)  the  fisheries. 

Manufactures.  —  The  principal  articles  of  manufacture  (named  in  the  order 
of  their  unportance)  are  Loots  and  shoes,  cotton  and  woolen  goods,  hardware, 
and  paper. 

Commerce.  —  The  commerce  of  the  State  is  very  large.  It  arises  from  the 
e.xchange  of  the  manufactures  and  natural  products  of  the  State  for  raw 
material,  as  cotton,  wool,  iron,  and  for  other  articles  of  use  and  luxury.  The 
many  excellent  harbors  greatly  facilitate  commerce. 

Fiaheries.  —  The  catching  of  cod  and  mackerel  off  the  coast  and  on  the 
Grand  Banks  is  an  important  industry,  and  in  this  industry  Massachusetts  is 
the  leading  State. 

4.  Boston,  the  capital,  ranks  in  foreign  conunerce  as  the  second 
city  in  the  United  States.  It  is  the  business  and  literary  metropo- 
lis of  New  England.  It  is  also  distinguished  for  its  great  public 
libraries  and  its  schools  of  science  and  art. 


HARVARD   UNIVERSITY. 


SPECIAI.  OEOGRAPH7  FOR  MASSACHUSETTS   CLASSES. 


Massachusetts  classes  should  now  make  a  full  study  of  their  State,  following  the  OuUine  on 
page  30.     Refer  to  the  County  map,  page  33. 

Area,  8,315  square  miles.    Population  (census  of  1880),  1,783,085. 

Extent.  —  This  State  has  a  general  breadth  of  not  more  than  50  miles,  with 
a  length  of  about  160  miles  ;  but  in  the  eastern  part  it  widens  abruptly  to  the 
breadth  of  100  miles,  and  protrudes  into  the  ocean  a  long,  narrow  tongue  of 
sand  that  extends  nearly  50  miles  beyond  the  mainland. 

Coast  —  The  sea-coast  is  much  indented  with  bays.  The  peninsulas  of 
Cape  Ann  and  Cape  Cod  enclose  a  large  gulf,  of  which  the  northern  part  is 
called  Massachusetts  Bay  and  the  southern  Cape  Cod  Bay.  Another  impor- 
tant inbreaking  of  the  sea  is  Buzzard's  Bay,  in  the  south. 

Surface.  —  Although  the  surface  is  generally  hilly  and  in  some  places 
ruggedj  no  part  of  it  rises  to  an  elevation  of  4,000  feet ;  the  peak  of  Saddle 
Mountain,  the  loftiest  summit,  is  3,600  feet  above  the  sea-level. 

In  the  western  part  the  Green  Mountains  are  prolonged  from  Vermont,  form- 
ing the  Hoosac  and  Taconic  ridges,  which  lie  nearly  parallel  to  each  other 
and  extend  southward  into  Connecticut.  The  Hoosac  ridge  divides  the  waters 
of  the  Connecticut  from  those  of  the  Housatonic. 

The  other  principal  mountains  are  the  isolated  peaks  of  Mount  Tom,  Mount 


Holyoke,  and  Wachusett  Mountain,  which  are  considered  detached  parts  of 
the  great  White  Mountain  range. 

Hivers. — Every  part  of  the  State  is  well  watered  ;  but  in  general  the  streams 
are  more  useful  for  their  water-power  than  as  channels  of  communication. 

The  Connecticut,  the  largest,  owing  to  its  rapid  descent,  is  navigable  in  this 
State  only  by  the  aid  of  canals  and  locks  ;  but  it  affords  great  water-power. 

The  Merrimac,  after  entering  this  State  from  New  Hampshire,  has  a  course 
east  and  northeast,  and  is  naWgable  to  Haverhill,  20  miles.  Its  principal 
tributaries  are  the  Nashua  and  Concord  rivers,  which  with  the  main  stream 
turn  a  vast  number  of  spindles  and  drive  immense  masses  of  machinery. 

The  Housatonic  Eiver,  between  the  Hoosac  and  Taconic  ranges,  flows  south- 
ward into  Connecticut.  The  Quinebaug  and  Blackstone  rivers  also  have  their 
sources  in  this  State.  Charles  Eiver,  reaching  the  sea  at  Boston,  and  Taunton 
River,  flowing  into  Narragansett  Bay,  are  valuable  mill-streams. 

Manufactures.  —  The  manufactures  of  the  State  are  of  immense  extent 
and  variety.  Their  products  for  the  year  1870  were  valued  at  $550,000,000. 
In  addition  to  those  named  in  the  text  may  be  mentioned  iron  machinery, 
steam-engines,  locomotives,  cutlery,  hardware,  agricultural  implements,  wooden 
and  glass  ware,  pianos,  sewing-machines,  watches,  books,  etc. 

Agriculture.  • —  Nature  has  not  favored  this  State  with  a  fertile  soil  ;  and 
so  compact  is  its  population  and  so  many  people  are  engaged  in  nianufactimng, 
it  does  not  raise  food  enough  to  supply  its  own  inhabitants.  Still,  agriculture 
is  pursued  with  great  scientific  skill,  and  many  of  its  farms  are  cultivated 
with  the  care  of  gardens,  and  are  very  productive,  yielding  two  or  three  open- 
air  crops  in  a  season. 

Industries  of  the  Sea.  —  The  State  is  celebrated  for  the  number  and 
excellence  of  its  ships,  and  for  the  skill  and  enterprise  of  its  seamen.  At 
Gloucester  and  other  fishing  towns  along  the  coast  great  fleets  of  smacks  and 
schooners  are  every  year  fitted  out  for  cod-fishing  on  the  Grand  Banks.  The 
fish  are  salted  and  dried,  and  form  a  very  important  article  of  export. 

Commerce.  —  In  addition  to  manufactured  articles,  the  chief  exports  are 
granite,  ice,  and  fish. 

Internal  Improvements.  —  In  proportion  to  its  surface,  no  other  State  is 
so  thoroughly  supplied  with  railroads  and  other  means  of  commmucation  as 
Massachusetts.  It  has  a  total  length  of  2,500  miles  of  railroad.  To  fonn 
direct  and  economical  connections  no  labor  or  expense  is  spared,  even  to  the 
tunneling  of  mountains.  The  celebrated  Hoosac  tunnel,  cut  in  order  to  form 
easy  communication  with  the  fertile  States  of  the  Great  West,  is  a  noted 
instance  of  its  enterprise  and  lavish  expenditure  in  opening  direct  lines  of  travel. 

Education.  —  The  educational  institutions  of  the  State  include,  in  addition 
to  the  public  schools,  attended  by  nearly  half  a  million  of  pupils,  five  State 
normal  schools,  five  colleges,  and  Harvard  University. 

Cities.  —  In  addition  to  Boston  the  cities  of  Ma.ssachusetts  are :  — 


Karnes. 


Worcester. 

Lowell. 
Cambridge. 

Lawrence. 
Lynn. 
Fall  Siver. 

Springfield. 

Salem. 

New  Bedford. 

Taunton. 

Gloucester. 
Haverhill. 

Fitolibarg. 

Somerville. 

Holyoke. 

Newton. 

Newburyport. 

Chelsea. 


Advantages  of  Location. 


Head  of  Blackstone  Biver. 


Confluence  of  Concord  and  Merri- 
mac rivers. 
Proximity  to  Boston. 

On  the  Merrimac  River. 
On  Massachusetts  Bay. 
Seaport  at  mouth  of  Taunton  Biver. 

Confluence  of  Mill  River  with  the 

Connecticut. 
Seaport 

On  Buzzard's  Bay. 
On  Taunton  River. 

On  Capo  Ann. 

On  the  Merrimac  River. 

On  a  hranch  of  the  Kashua  River. 

Proximity  to  Boston. 

On  the  Connecticut  River. 

On  the  Charles  River. 

Mouth  of  the  Merrimac  River. 

Proximity  to  Boston. 


Industries  and  Cliaracteristics. 


Endless  variety  of  manufactures  in  iron 
and  wood.  Agricultural  implements, 
»fire,  machinery,  carpets,  etc. 

Leading  city  in  cotton  manufacture. 

Iron  and  glass  works,  pork-packing,  ice- 
cutting,  printing-establishments,  brick- 
yards, etc.     Seat  of  Harvard  University. 

Manufacture  of  cotton  and  woolen  goods. 

Immense  manufacture  of  ladies'  shoes. 

Cotton-miUs,  calico  print-works,  iron- 
works, etc. 

Manufacture  of  paper,  envelopes,  pai)er-col- 
lars,  cars,  fire-arms,  etc.     U.  S.  Arsenal. 

Manufacturing  and  some  shipping. 

Manufacturing. 

Locomotive  works,  rolling-mills,  and  other 
iron  and  brass  works,  etc. 

Cod  and  mackerel  fisheries. 

Manufacture  of  shoes,  hats,  carriages, 
paper-boxes,  bricks,  etc. 

Manufacture  of  iron  machinery,  edge-tools, 
chairs,  paper,  rattan,  etc. 

Bleachery  and  glass-works.  Manufacture 
of  brass-tubing,  etc.  Business  in  Boston. 

Largest  paper-mills  in  the  United  States. 
Varied  manufactures. 

Manufacture  of  pajier  and  woolen  goods. 
Varied  manufactures. 

Ship-building,  cod  and  mackerel  fishing. 
Cotton-mills.    Varied  manufactures. 

Residential  city,  with  manufactures. 


CONNECTICUT  AND  RHODE  ISLAND. 


37 


CONNEOTIOUT. 


>^«:^\: 


L  The  physical  features  of  tliis  State  are :  the  fertile  valleys  of 
the  Connecticut  and  Housatonic  rivers,  the  rolling  hills  which 
diversify  the  surface,  and  the  numerous  streams  affording  water- 
power. 

2.  The  leading  industries  are  (1)  agriculture,  for  which  the  fertile 
soil  is  well  adapted;  aud  (2)  manufacturing,  for  which  this  State 
has  fine  facilities  in  its  water-power  and  in  its  nearness  to  the  iron 
and  coal  of  Pennsylvania  on  the  one  hand,  and  to  the  great  dis- 
tributing point.  New  York  City,  on  the  other. 

3.  Cities.  —  Hartford,  the  capital,  has  extensive  trade  and 
many  manufacturing  establishments.  It  is  the  seat  of  Trinity 
College.  New  Haven,  the  largest  city,  is  an  important  manu- 
facturing point,  and  is  the  seat  of  Yale  College. 

SPECIAL  GEOGRAPHY  FOR   CONNECTICUT  CLASSES. 

1^^  Connecticut  classes  should  now  make  a  full  study  of  the  geography  of  their  State,  following 
the  Outline  on  page  30.     Refer  to  the  County  map,  page  33. 

Area,  4,990  square  miles.    Population  (census  of  1880),  622,700. 

Position  and  Extent.  —  Connecticut  lies  between  Massachusetts  and  Long 
Island  Sound.  Its  boundary  on  Massachusetts  is  about  85  miles  ;  that  on 
New  York,  82  miles  ;  that  on  Rhode  Island,  48  miles  ;  and  its  frontage  on  Long 
Island  Sound,  over  100  miles.  ' 

Surface.  —  The  surface  presents  a  beautiful  diversity  of  hill  and  valley. 
The  hills  are  all  continuations  of  the  ranges  in  the  States  lying  to  the  north. 
The  Green  Mountains  of  Vermont  and  the  White  Mountains  of  New  Hamp- 
shire, prolonged  through  Massachusetts,  traverse  the  State  in  hill-ranges,  and 
end,  the  former  in  West  Rock  and  the  latter  in  East  Rock,  near  New  Haven. 

Rivers.  —  The  principal  rivers  are  the  Connecticut,  navigable  to  Hartford 
(50  miles) ;  the  Housatonic,  navigable  to  Derby  (12  miles);  and  the  Thames, 
navigable  to  Norwich  (16  miles).  These  rivers  with  their  numerous  tributaries 
furnish  great  wat«r-power. 

Manufactures.  —  Manufacturing  forms  the  leading  intere-st  in  this  State, 
and  it  has  been  well  said  that  Connecticut  "  is  rapidly  becoming  a  vast  work- 
shop." The  great  stimulus  given  to  manufacturing  industries  arises  from  two 
advantages,  —  that  of  fine  water-power  and  that  of  cheap  transportation  of  coal 
and  iron  from  Pennsylvania. 

Leading  ariicla  of  manufacture  are  cotton  and  woolen  goods,  tin-ware,  brass- 
ware,  hardware,  and  wooden  ware,  paper,  clocks,  carriages,  sewing-machines, 
pins,  buttons,  silk,  india-rubber  goods,  rifles  and  revolvers,  and  innumerable 
4inall  articles  known  under  the  name  of  "  Yankee  notions." 

Agrloaltnre.  —  The  growth  of  manufactures  has  rendered  agriculture,  which 
for  two  centuries  was  the  leading  interest  of  the  State,  of  secondary  importance. 
Still,  farming  receives  much  attention  :  the  soil  is  generally  fertile,  especially 
in  the  valleys  of  the  Housatonic,  the  Connecticut,  and  the  Quinebaug  rivers. 
In  the  valley  of  the  Connecticut  River  tobacco  is  largely  grown. 


Commerce.  —  The  towns  on  the  Sound  have  an  active  coasting-trade,  and 
there  is  considerable  foreign  commerce  with  the  West  Imlies. 

Education.  —  In  addition  to  its  public  school  system,  including  Common, 
High,  and  Normal  Schools,  the  State  has  three  colleges,  — Yale  at  New  Haven, 
Trinity  at  Hartford,  and  the  Wesleyan  University  at  Middletown.  Connected 
with  Yale  are  schools  of  Law,  Medicine,  and  Divinity.  The  Berkeley  Di- 
\inity  School  is  at  Middletown,  and  the  Hartford  Theological  Seminary 
it  Hartford. 

Cities.  —  In  addition  to  Hartford  and  New  Haven,  the  leading  places 

in  Connecticut  are  :  — 


Names. 


Bridgeport. 

Korwich. 

Waterbnry. 


Kew  London. 
Middletown. 


Advantages  of  Location. 


On  Long  Island  Sound.  Proximity 
to  N.  V.  by  railroad  and  water. 

Head  of  navigation  on  the  Thames 
River. 

On  the  Naugatuck  River. 


Mouth  of  Thames  River. 

Right  bank  of  Connecticut  River. 


Industries  and  ChanuiterisUca. 


Manufacture  of  sewing-machines,  carriages, 
paper,  etc.    Cotton  and  woolen  mills. 

Manufacture  of  cotton  and  woolen  goods, 
paper,  etc. 

Is  the  center  of  the  manufactures  in  cop- 
jier  and  brass.  Special  articles :  pins, 
pens,  hooks-and-eyes,  buttons,  buckles, 
percussion-caps,  plated  ware,  brass  ket- 
tles, etc. 

Local  and  coasting  trade. 

Manufacture  of  hardware  and  cotton  goods 


Additional  Places. —  In  audition  to  the  cities  there  are  in  the  State  many  imiwrtant 
borougtis  and  villages  engaged  in  manufacturing  and  trade.  Among  these  are  Korwalk,  Stam- 
ford, and  Greenwich,  in  the  southwestern  part,  on  Long  Island  Sound,  engaged  in  manufacturing 
hardware,  tin-ware,  felt  and  straw  hats,  combs,  dye-stuffs,  etc. ;  Meriden,  engaged  in  making  tin- 
ware Britannia-ware,  and  silver-plated  ware,  cutlery,  fire-arms,  etc.  ;  New  Britain,  which  is  the 
seat  of  the  State  Normal  School,  and  is  largely  engaged  in  making  hardware  ;  Derby,  with  splendid 
water-power,  an  important  manufacturing  center;  Danbuy,  also  celebrated  for  its  water-power 
and  numul^tories ;  Stonington,  Litchfield,  Willimantic,  etc. 


RHODE   ISLAND. 


1.  Its  Bank.  —  Rhode  Island,  though  the  smallest,  ranks  as  one 
of  the  most  prosperous  and  thickly  settled  States  in  the  Union. 

2.  The  leading  industry  of  this  State  is  manufacturing ;  and  the 
chief  manufactures  are  those  of  cotton  and  woolen  goods. 

3.  Cities.  —  Providence  ranks  in  population  as  the  second  city 
in  New  England.  It  is  noted  for  its  cotton-mills,  woolen-nulls, 
iron-works,  silver-plated  ware,  screw-factories,  etc.  Newport,  on 
the  island  of  Rhode  Island,  is  a  fashionable  watering-place.  These 
cities  are  both  capitals  of  the  State. 


SPECIAIi  GEOORAPHT  FOR  RHODE  ISI.AND   CLASSES. 

1^^  ~  Rhode  Island  classes  should  now  make  a  full  study  of  the  geography  of  their  State,  following 
the  Outline  on  page  30.     Refer  to  the  Cotmty  map,  page  33. 

Area,  1,250  square  miles.    Population  (census  of  1880),  276,531. 

Extent.  —  This  State  is  in  length  about  42  miles,  and  in  its  greatest  width 
35  miles.  It  is  divided  by  Narragansett  Bay  into  two  unequal  parts,  much  the 
larger  part  being  west  of  the  Bay,  while  the  Bay  itself  is  studded  with  numer- 
ous fertile  islands.  Of  these  the  largest  is  Rhode  Island  (length  15  miles), 
which  gives  its  name  to  the  State 

Surface.  —  The  surface  is  broken  and  undulating,  but  the  elevations  are 
gentle.  Mount  Hope,  the  highest  land,  being  only  300  feet  above  the  sea- 
level. 

Rivers.  —  The  Blackstone,  entering  the  State  from  Massachusetts,  flows 
southward  into  Providence  River,  at  the  city  of  Providence.  Pawtuxet  River, 
in  the  central  part  of  the  State,  abounds  with  mill-sites.  Pawcatuck  River 
waters  the  southwestern  part,  and  is  a  partial  boundary  between  Rhotle  Island 
and  Connecticut. 

Industries.  —  The  great  employment  is  the  manufacture  of  useful  articles. 
In  the  fabrication  of  cotton  and  woolen  goods  and  hardware  Rhode  Island 
exceeds  all  the  other  States  in  proportion  to  its  area  and  population.  Its  other 
forms  of  manufacturing  industry  are  very  diversified. 

Education.  —  This  State  enjoys  an  excellent  public-school  system.  The 
most  important  of  the  higher  institutions  of  learning  is  Brown  University. 

To^ns.  —  Providence  and  Newport  are  the  only  cities  in  the  State.  The 
places  next  in  size  are  Woonsock'et  and  Pawtuck'et,  engaged  in  manufactur- 
ing, and  Bristol,  a  seaport. 


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1  Its  Bank.  —  New  York  is  the  foremost  of  the  States  in  wealth, 
population,  and  commerce ;  and  hence  is  often  called  the  "  Empire 
State."  It  has  more  than  one  tenth  of  the  population  and  one 
seventh  of  the  wealth  in  the  United  States. 

2.  The  physical  features  of  the  State  are  its  highlands  in  the 
eastern  and  uurthem  sections,  the  great  valley  formed  by  the 
Hudson  River  and  lakes  Champlain  and  George,  and  the  fertile 
plains  and  nimierous  lakes  in  the  western  section. 

3.  The  natural  advantagfes  of  the  State  consist  in  its  fertile  soil, 
the  grciit  exteut  of  its  navigable  waters,  its  central  position  between 
the  Great  Lakes  and  the  Ocean,  and  the  possession  of  the  best  har- 
bor on  the  Atlantic  seaboard. 

4.  The  leading  industries  are  (1)  agriculture ;  (2)  manufactur- 
ing ;  and   (3)  commerce. 

{The  fertile  fanning  section  in  the  west  produces  large 
crops  of  com,  wheat,  potatoes,  hay,  and  fruit  ;  the  dairy- 
farms  yield  one  fourth  of  the  butter  and  cheese  made  in 
the  Unitetl  States, 
r     In  the  extent  and  value  of  its  manufactures  it  is  unsur- 
Manufacturea  ■•  P^***^'    "^^  leading  articles  are  clothing,  cotton  and  woolen 
'  I  good.s,  railroad-iron,   machinery,  furniture,  flour,  salt,  and 
I  spirits. 

(The  State  has  a  vast  foreign  and  domestic  commerce, 
which  is  favored  by  its  central  position,  its  fine  harbor,  and 
its  extensive  system  of  lake,  river,  canal,  and  railroad  com- 
munication. 

5.  New  York  City  is  the  business  and  moneyed  emporium  of 
the  New  World.  In  commercial  importance  it  is  second  only  to 
London.  It  has  about  one  million  of  inhabitants ;  and,  including 
Brooklyn  and  other  neighboring  cities  closely  connected  with  it 
and  forming  one  compact  business  center,  it  comprises  a  popu- 
lation of  nearly  two  millions. 

ft  The  Capital  —  Albany,  the  capital,  though  in  population  a 
city  of  the  second  class,  is  an  active  commercial  point  advantage- 
ously situated  near  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Hudson  liiver 
and  at  the  eastern  terminus  of  the  Erie  CauaL 


SPECIAL  GEOGRAPHY  FOR  NEW  YORK  CLASSES. 

^^  New  York  classes  should  now  make  a  full  study  of  the  geography  of  their  State,  following  the 
Outline  on  page  30.    Refer  to  the  County  map,  page  38. 

Area,  49.170  square  miles.    Population  (census  of  1880),  6,082,871. 

Outline.  —  The  outline  of  this  State  is  that  of  an  irregular  triangle,  —  the 
southern  angle  resting  on  New  York  Bay,  the  northeastern  on  Lake  Cham- 
plain,  and  the  northwestern  where  Niagara  River  flows  into  Lake  Ontario. 

Extent.  —  Its  greatest  length  from  east  to  west,  exclusive  of  Long  Island, 
is  about  .335  miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth,  from  north  to  south,  about  308 
miles.  Its  area  is  somewhat  greater  than  that  of  Pennsylvania  ;  but  of  the 
Atlantic  States  it  is  exceeded  in  size  by  North  Carolina,  Georgia,  and  Florida. 

Surface.  —  The  general  surface  of  the  State  is  uneven  and  somewhat 
elevated.  The  mountains  are  spurs  and  ridges  of  the  Appalachian  system, 
which  enter  the  State  from  New  Jersey  and  Pennsylvania. 

The  most  eastern  range  cros.'^es  Orange,  Rockland,  Putnam,  and  Dutchess  coun- 
ties into  Western  Ma-ssachusetts.  It  is  broken  through  by  the  Hudson  River, 
forming  on  the  Jersey  side  the  bold  and  picturesque  bluffs  of  the  Palisades. 

A  second  range,  the  Shawangunk  [skon^gtim]  Mountains,  a  northern  exten- 
sion of  the  Blue  or  Kittatin'ny  Mountains  of  Pennsylvania,  extends  northeast, 
culminating  in  the  Catskill  Moiuitains  and  sending  off  spurs  to  the  northwest. 

77k  highest  -mountain  region  is  that  of  the  Adirondack  Mountains,  in  the 
northeastern  part.  The  loftiest  j)eak  is  Mount  Marcy,  5,467  feet  above  the 
sea-levoL  In  the  southwestern  part  of  the  State,  between  and  to  the  north  of 
the  head-streams  of  the  Alleghany  and  Su.s(iuehanna  rivers,  is  a  height  of  land 
which  forms  the  watershed  dividing  the  streams  flowing  southward  into 
Pennsylvania  from  those  that  belong  to  the  basin  of  the  Great  Lakes. 

The  northwestern  part  of  New  York  slopes  toward  the  St.  Lawrence  River 
and  the  Great  Lakes. 

Lakes. —  Its  lakes  are  a  distinguishing  feature  of  this  State.  Numbers  of 
these  lie  wholly  within  its  borders  ;  but  the  Great  Lakes,  properly  so  calletl, 
lie  on  its  lx>rders,  —  Ontario  and  Erie  on  the  north  and  west,  and  Champlain' 
on  the  northeast. 

Lake  Erie  is  268  miles  in  length,  and  from  30  to  54  miles  in  width.  Of 
its  southern  shore  an  extent  of  about  60  miles  lies  within  this  State.  Onta- 
rio is  next  in  size,  and  is  elliptical  in  form  ;  it  is  190  miles  in  length  and  66 
nules  in  extreme  breadth.  Its  entire  southern  shore  east  of  Niagara  River  a 
within  New  York  .State. 

Lake  Champlain  is  a  long  narrow  sheet  of  water  famed  for  its  beauty.  In 
extreme  length  it  is  134  miles,  with  a  breadth  of  from  ^  mile  to  10  miles. 

Lake  George  discharges  itself  into  Lake  Cliamplain. 

In  the  northern  mountain  region  are  not  fewer  than  two  hundred  small  lakes. 

River  System.  —  The  St.  Laicrenee  River  forms  part  of  the  boundary  line 
on  the  north.     The  Hudton  (length,  3(X)  miles),  the  chief  river  belonging  wholly 


40 


THE  ATLANTIC   STATES. 


Its  main  tribu- 


to  New  York,  is  navigable  for  steamboats  to  Troy,  151  miles, 
taiy  is  the  Mohawk. 

The  western  slopes  of  the  Adirondacks  give  rise  to  various  small  rivers.  Among 
these  are  the  Rackett,  Grass,  and  Black  rivers,  the  latter  flowing  into  Lake 
Ontario,  the  other  two  into  the  river  St.  Lawrence. 

A  secondary  watershed  is  formed  by  a  height  of  land  between  and  to  the  north 
of  the  head-stream  of  the  Susquehanna,  which  rises  in  Otsego  Lake,  and  the 
head-stream  of  the  Alleghany,  which  curves  northward  into  New  York.  This 
height  of  land  forms  the  "divide  "  between  the  streams  flowing  northward  and 
westward  into  the  Great  Lakes,  southward  into  Pennsylvania,  and  eastward 
into  the  Hudson  River.  Among  those  belonging  to  the  basin  of  the  Great 
Lakes  are  Tonawanda,  Buff'alo,  and  Cattaraugus  creeks,  which  flow  into  Lake 
Erie  or  Niagara  River,  and  the  Genesee  and  Oswego  rivers,  which  flow  into 
Lake  Ontario.  The  latter  is  the  outlet  of  a  series  of  lakes  in  Central  New  York. 

Thus  from  these  watersheds  the  streams  of  the  State  run  into  Hudson 
River,  Chesapeake  Bay,  and  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence. 

Agriculture.  —  In  the  value  of  its  farm  productions  and  live-stock  New 
York  exceeds  any  other  State.  The  most  fertile  farm-lands  are  in  the  val- 
leys of  the  Mohawk  and  the  Genesee  rivers. 

The  chief  agricultural  products  are  hay,  wheat,  oats,  corn,  buckwheat,  rye, 
tobacco,  potatoes,  orchard-fruits,  and  garden-products.  Of  hay,  Irish  potatoes, 
barley,  and  hops  it  produces  more  than  any  other  State.  In  the  value  of  its 
live-stock,  and  in  the  production  of  milk,  butter,  and  cheese,  it  exceeds  any 
other  State  ;  and  it  ranks  high  in  the  production  of  pork,  flax,  and  wool. 

Manufactures.  —  The  total  value  of  its  manufactured  articles  is  over 
J  800,000,(X)0  annually,  being  greater  than  that  of  any  other  State. 

New  York  ranks  first  in  the  following  articles  of  manufacture  :  flouring  and 
grist-mUl  products,  cast-iion  articles,  clothing,  sewing-machines  and  musical 
instruments,  tanned  leather,  cigars  and  tobacco,  malt  liquors,  salt,  furniture, 
and  books.  In  the  manufacture  of  boots  and  shoes  it  is  second  only  to 
Massachusetts  ;  in  agricultural  implements,  second  only  to  Ohio. 

Commerce.  —  In  foreign  commerce  New  York  greatly  exceeds  any  other 
State  :  this  arises  from  the  fact  that  New  York  City  ships  the  great  bulk  of 
the  grain  exported  to  foreign  countries,  and  that  most  of  the  imports  into  the 
United  States  are  received  through  the  same  port.  The  State  has  also  a  vast 
domestic  trade,  which  is  favored  by  its  great  works  of  internal  improvement. 

Internal  Improvements. —  In  addition  to  the  natural  highways  of  com- 
merce aflbrded  by  lakes  Erie,  Ontario,  and  Champlain,  and  by  the  Hudson 
River,  — that  wonderful  natural  channel  through  the  barrier  of  the  Appalachian 
ridges,  —  the  State  has  a  magnificent  system  of  canals  and  railroads. 

The  Erie  Canal,  the  longest  in  the  world  (364  miles),  connects  Lake  Erie 
with  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Hudson,  thus  forming  a  cheap  and  easy 
route  for  the  products  of  the  great  West  to  the  Atlantic  seaboard. 

Other  canals  of  great  importance  have  been  cut  to  overcome  the  obstacles 
in  the  principal  navigable  rivers. 

Of  railroads  a  network  extends  over  the  State,  and  through-lines  connect 
the  seaboard  with  Chicago,  St.  Louis,  and  San  Francisco,  thus  commanding 
the  trade  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  and  the  Pacific  coast. 

Scenery. —  New  York  is  distinguished  for  its  fine  scenery.  The  High- 
lands in  the  lower  course  of  the  Hudson  are  exceedingly  picturesque,  while 
the  mountain  regions  of  the  Catskills  and  the  Adirondacks  are  wild  and 
grand.  Watkins'  Glen,  at  the  head  of  Seneca  Lake,  is  a  favorite  resort. 
The  lake  scenery,  especially  that  of  Lake  George  and  of  the  group  of  small 
lakes  in  the  central  part  of  the  State,  is  very  lovely.  New  York  is  noted  for 
its  numerous  mineral-springs,  among  which  are  those  of  Saratoga,  Ballston, 
Sharon,  Avon,  and  others.  The  waterfalls  are  numerous,  comprising  Cohoes 
Falls  on  the  Mohawk,  Trenton  Falls  on  West  Canada  Creek,  the  various 
falls  of  the  Genesee,  and  Niagara  Falls,  the  sublimest  cataract  on  the  globe. 

The  Metropolis.  —  New  York  City  has  a  magnificent  harbor,  which  is 
visited  by  the  ships  of  all  nations.  Two  thirds  of  all  the  imports  brought 
into  our  country  enter  here.  Broadway,  one  of  the  grandest  streets  in  the 
world,  is  many  miles  long,  and  is  noted  for  its  great  hotels  and  splendid  iron 
and  marble  buildings.  The  Central  Park  is  one  of  the  finest  of  pleasure- 
gardens.  New  York  is  the  center  of  the  great  railroad  companies,  insurance 
companies,  manufacturing  companies,  and  banking  institutions  of  our  country. 
It  is  also  distinguished  for  its  literary,  scientific,  and  benevolent  institutions. 

Education.  —  New  York  has  an  excellent  system  of  common,  high,  and 
normal  schools.     These  are  attended  by  more  than  a  million  of  pupils. 

The  higher  education  of  both  sexes  is  abundantly  provided  for.  Among  the 
best  known  institutions  are  :  Columbia  College,  the  University  of  New  York, 
the  Normal  College,  the  College  of  the  City  of  New  York,  College  of  St. 
Francis  Xavier,  Manhattan  College,  and  Rutgers  Female  College,  all  in  the 
city  of  New  York ;  Cornell  University,  at  Ithaca ;  Union  College,  at  Sche- 


nectady ;  Hamilton  College,  at  Clinton ;  Madison  University,  at  Hamilton  ; 
Hobart  College,  at  Geneva  ;  Syracise  University  and  the  University  of  Roches- 
ter, situated  respectively  in  these  cities  ;  Alfred  University,  at  Alfred  ;  Ingham 
University,  at  Le  Roy ;  Elmira  Female  College,  at  Elmira ;  Vassar  Female 
College,  at  Poughkeepsie. 

History.  —  The  territory  which  is  now  the  State  of  New  York  was  dis- 
covered in  1609  by  Heni-y  Hudson  (an  Englishman  in  the  employ  of  the 
Dutch  East  India  Company),  on  the  Hudson  River  side,  and  by  Champlain, 
the  French  governor  of  Canada,  on  the  Lake  Champlain  side.  In  1613-14 
a  Dutch  trading  post  called  New  Amsterdam  (now  New  York)  was  established 
on  Manhattan  Island  ;  and  another,  called  Fort  Orange,  where  Albany  now 
stands.  The  whole  territory,  including  also  New  Jersey,  was  named  New 
Netherlands,  and  was  largely  settled  by  Hollanders.  In  1664  the  English 
wrested  this  region  from  the  Dutch,  and  it  received  the  name  of  New  York, 
from  the  Duke  of  York  (subsequently  Janies  II.). 

Political  Divisions.  —  New  York  is  divided  into  60  counties,  with  930 
towns  and  24  cities.  In  addition  to  the  metropolis  (New  York)  and  the 
capital  (Albany),  are  the  cities  named  in  the  subjoined  table. 


Karnes. 


Brooklyn. 

Buffalo. 
Rochester, 


Troy. 

Syracuse. 

TTtioa. 
Kingston. 

Oswego. 

Poughkeepsie. 

Auburn. 

Newburgh. 
Elmira 

Cohoes. 

Bingham  ton. 

Lockport. 


Advantages  of  Location. 


Opposite  New  York,  from  which  it 
is  separated  by  a  strait  called  the 
East  River,  j  of  a  mile  wide. 

On  Lake  Erie,  at  western  terminus 
of  Erie  Canal. 

Upper  falls  (100  feet)  of  Genesee 
Eiver,  7  uiilea  from  Lake  Ontario. 


Left  bank  of  Hudson  Eiver,  above 

Albany. 
On  L.ake  Onondaga,  at  junction  of 

Erie  and  Oswego  canals. 


On  the  Hohawk  River.  A  railroad 
center.    Canal  facilities. 

Right  bank  of  Hudson  Eiver.  Ter- 
minus of  the  Delaware  and  Hud 
son  CanaL 

Mouth  of  Oswego  River. 

Left  bank  of  Hudson  River. 

Near  Owasco  Lake.  Water-power 
from  its  outlet. 

Right  bank  of  Hudson  Eiver. 

Near  junction  of  Newtown  Creek 
with  Chemung  Eiver.  Fine  farm- 
ing region.    Eailroad  center. 

Eight  bank  of  the  Mohawk  Eiver. 
Immense  water-power  (dam,  1,443 
feet  long). 

Confluence  of  the  Chenango  and 
Susquehanna  rivers. 


On  the  Erie  Caniil.  [The  place  takes 
its  name  from  the  system  of  locks 
\)y  which  the  water  in  the  Erie 
Canal  is  raised  to  the  level  of  the 
mountain  ridge  over  which  the 
Niagara  River  falls.] 


Borne. 

On  the  Mohawk  Eiver.  Junction 
of  Black  Eiver  and  Erie  canals. 

Schenectady. 

Eight  bank  of  Mohawk  Eiver. 

Ogdensbnrgh. 

Eight  bank  of  the  St  Lawrence 
Eiver. 

Watertown. 

Left  bank  of  Black  River,  at  falls. 

Hudson. 
Yonkers. 

Left  bank  of  Hudson  River,  below 

Albany. 
Left  bank  of  Hudson  River,  12  miles 

above  New  York. 

Long  Island  ) 
City.         j 

On  Long  Island.  Proximity  to  New 
York  City. 

Industries  and  CharacterlBtics. 


Local  trade.  Manufactures.  City  of  resi- 
dences for  people  doing  business  In 
New  York  City. 

Lake  and  canal  trade.    Manufoctures. 

Large  manufacturing  and  milling  inter- 
ests. Manufacture  of  clothing  and  boctts 
and  slices.  Most  extensive  fruit  and 
ornamental  tree  nurseries  in  the  world. 
Seat  of  Rochester  University. 

Extensive  iron  and  steel  works,  Raikoad- 
car  shops,  nail-works,  etc. 

Immense  salt-works.  Varied  manufac- 
tures ;  hardware,  glass,  furniture,  musi- 
cal instruments,  coal  market.  Syracuse 
University. 

Manufacture  of  cotton  and  woolen  goods, 
and  boots  and  shoes. 

Great  coiil-market.  Center  of  an  immense 
business  in  flagging  and  other  varieties 
of  blue  stone.  Manufacture  of  hydrau- 
lic cement  and  lime. 

A  grain  port.  Flouring-mllls  and  corn- 
starch factories. 

Trade  and  manufacturing.  Seat  of  Vassar 
Female  College. 

Manufacture  of  agricultural  implements 
and  woolen  goods.  Seat  of  the  Auburn 
Theological  Seminary.  Also  of  a  State 
Prison. 

Manufacture  of  cotton  goods  and  iron, 
Coal-trade. 

Large  trade.  Manufacture  of  iron  and 
boots  and  shoes.  Seat  of  a  Female  Col- 
lege. 

Cotton-weaving  mills,  knitting-mills,  roll- 
ing-mills, ax  and  tool  factories,  etc 

Manufacture  of  boots  and  shoes,  cigars, 
steam-engines,  agricultural  implements, 
etc.  L-arge  coal-trade.  Seat  of  the  State 
Inebriate  Asylum. 

Flouring-niills,  limestone-quarries,  etc. 
Manufacture  of  machinery  of  the  Holly 
water-works. 


Rolling-mills  and  paper-mills.  Railroad- 
car  manufactory. 

Locomotive-works.  Broom  manufacto- 
ries. Local  trade.  Seat  of  Union  Col- 
lege. 

Extensive  Lake  and  Canadian  trada 

Varied  manufactures,  — woolen  goods,  pa- 
per, flour,  farming  implements,  leather, 
etc. 

Iron  fUmaces,  and  varied  manufactures. 
River-trade. 

Place  of  suburban  residence.    Local  trade. 

Place  of  residence  for  people  employed  in 
New  York  City. 


PENNSYLVANIA. 


41 


L  Its  Bank.  —  Pennsylvania  is  a  great  and  prosperous  State, 
ranking  in  population  and  manufactures  next  to  New  York. 

2.  Physical  Features.  —  It  embraces  three  physical  regions  : 
(1)  the  central  mountain-region  of  the  Appalachian  system,  with 
its  numerous  long  and  narrow  mountain- valleys ;  (2)  a  part  of  the 
Atlantic  Plain  in  the  east ;  and  (3)  the  Ohio  VaUey  slope. 

3.  Besonrces.  —  The  natural  advantages,  or  resources,  of  this 
State  are  very  great.  They  comprise  (1)  rich  iron-mines,  vast 
coal-fields,  and  a  great  oil-producing  region  ;  (2)  abundant  water- 
power  ;    (3)  a  fertile  soil ;  (4)  extensive  forests. 

4  Industries.  —  The  leading  industrial  occupations  have  arisen 
from  these  natiiral  advantages.  They  are  mining,  manufacturing, 
agriculture,  and  commerce. 

6.  Mining.  —  The  principal  branches  of  this  industry  are  the 
mining  of  coal  and  iron,  carried  on  to  an  immense  extent.  The 
rich  iron-mines  and  vast  coal-beds  supply  a  large  part  of  the  iron 
and  coal  used  in  the  United  States.  Petroleum,  also,  is  produced 
in  great  quantities. 

6.  Manufactures.  —  Pennsylvania  combines  all  the  advantages  for 
being  a  great  manufacturing  State,  —  iron,  coal,  wood,  water-power, 
and  easy  communication.  The  leading  manufactures  consist  of 
wTought-iron  and  the  articles  made  from  it,  of  cast-iron  and  cast- 
iron  articles,  of  pig-iron,  and  of  cotton  and  woolen  goods. 

7.  Agriculture.  —  The  soil  is  productive,  and  great  attention  is 
given  to  tillage.  The  State  ranks  high  in  the  production  of  grain 
and  dairy-products  and  in  the  raising  of  live-stock. 

8.  Commercially  Pennsylvania  is  the  fourth  State  in  the  Union. 

9.  Philadelphia  ranks  next  to  New  York  City  in  population. 
It  has  a  great  domestic  and  coast  trade,  though  in  foreign  com- 
merce it  is  the  fifth  city  in  the  Union.  In  the  value  of  its  manu- 
factures it  exceeds  any  other  city  in  the  United  States. 

lOi  Harrisburg,  the  capital,  is  a  manufacturiag  and  conuuercial 
city. 


SPECIAL  GEOGRAPHY  FOR  PENNSYLVANIA  CLASSES. 


Peansylvania  classes  should  now  make  a  full  study  of  the  geography  of  their  State,  follow- 
ing the  Outline  on  i)age  30.     Refer  to  County  map,  page  38. 

Area,  45,215  square  miles.    Population  (census  of  1880),  4,282,801. 

Outline  and  Extent  —  In  form  this  State  is  a  parallelogram  whose  length 
is  nearly  twice  its  breadth.  (Length,  310  miles  ;  width,  160  miles,  except  at 
the  angle  at  Lake  Erie,  where  it  is  175  miles.)  Its  northern,  western,  and 
southern  boundaries  are  straight  lines. 

Surface.  —  The  Appalachian  system  attains  its  greatest  breadth  in  Pennsyl- 
vania. Its  various  parallel  ridges  (see  map  for  the  names)  spread  over  about 
one  fourth  of  the  State,  and  occupy  the  southern,  central,  and  eastern  counties. 
These  ridges  seldom  rise  above  2,000  feet ;  they  are  generally  forest-clad,  and 
are  separated  by  valleys,  some  of  which  are  quite  narrow,  while  others  have 
a  width  of  from  15  to  20  miles. 

The  southeastern  part  is  a  rolling  country ;  the  western  section  consists  of 
undulating  table-lands,  with  a  general  slope  toward  the  Ohio  River  basin. 

Rivers.  —  The  principal  rivers  of  the  State  are  :  — 


Karnes. 

Lengtli. 

Susqnehan'ua. 

UUet. 

400 

Jania'ta. 

150 

Delaware. 

300 

LeTiigh. 

90 

Sohaylkill. 
[■koollca] 

Ohio. 

HO 

Lrngthln 

50 

Alleghany. 

800 

Konongahola. 

200 

Source,  Course,  etc. 


BIst  Branch  in  N.  Y.,  West 
Branch  in  Penn.  :  flows 
in  a  winding  course  8. 
into  Chesapeake  Bay. 
Rises  in  the  Alleghanies, 
and   flows   E.  into  the 
Susquehanna. 
Rises  in  the  Catskill  Mts.  ; 
flows  S.   into  Delaware 
Bay. 
Rises   in    the    anthracite 
coal-region ;  flows  S.  E. 
and  Joins  the  Delaware 
at  Easton. 
Rises  in  the  Bine  Ridge, 
and  flows  S.  E.  into  the 
Delaware  at  Fhila. 
Formed  by  the  Alleghany 
and  Monongahela;  takes 
a  N.  W.  sweep  to  the 
Ohio  State  border. 
Rises  partly  in  Western 
N.   T.    and    parUy   in 
the  Alleghanies  within 
Penn.  j  flows  8.  W.  into 
the  Ohio  at  Pittsburgh. 
Rises  in  the  mountains  of 
West  ViTginU :  flows  N. 
Into  the  Ohio. 


Characteristics. 


In  sise  the  principal  river  of  the  State, 
but  too  swift  m  ite  current  and  too  rapid 
in  its  fall  to  be  of  much  advantage  for 
navigation. 

Flows  through  the  beautiftil  Juniata  val- 
ley. 

Forms  the  eastern  boundary  of  Penn  ,  and 
is  navigable  to  Trenton,  78  miles.  High 
way  of  transportation  for  coal  and  iron 

Channel  of  an  immense  trade  in  coal  and 
iron. 


Important  highway  of  comrannication,  — 
furnishes  the  water  for  the  city  of  Phil 
adelphia. 

The  great  highway  between  Pennsylvania 
and  the  Mississippi  Valley. 


Northern  and  main  eonatitnent  of  the 
Ohio.— navigable  to  Clean  (N.  T.),  260 
miles. 


Bmnch  of  the  Ohio,— navigable  to  Fair 
monnt,  IM  miles. 


42 


THE  ATLANTIC   STATES. 


Special  Geography  of  Penn.  continued.] 

Lakes.  —  Within  Pennsylvania  are  no  important  lakes  ;  but  Lake  Erie,  for 
about  50  miles,  forms  the  northwestern  boundary. 

Climate.  —  Pennsylvania  has  a  climate  intermediate  between  the  extremes 
of  the  northern  and  southern  sections  of  the  country.  The  State,  on  the 
whole,  is  considered  one  of  the  most  salubrious  in  the  Union. 

Minerals.  —  In  coal,  the  most  useful  mineral,  and  iron,  the  most  useful 
metal,  Pennsylvania  is  one  of  the  richest  regions  in  the  world.  The  annual 
value  of  the  products  of  the  mines  is  nearly  $  100,000,000,  or  fully  one  half 
the  total  value  of  all  the  mining  products  in  the  United  States,  including  gold 
and  silver. 


THE   ANTHRACITE   COAL   REQION    OF    PENNSYLVANIA. 

The  coal  is  of  two  varieties,  —  anthracite  and  bituminous.    The  anthracite 

coal  region  is  found  chiefly  in  the  east-central  part  of  the  State,  east  of  the 

East  Branch  (Susquehanna),  and  west  of  the  Lehigh  River.     It  forms  a  long, 

irregular-shaped  tract,  100  miles  in  length  and  30  miles  in  width,  divided  into 

three  fields, —  the  Southern,  Middle,  and  Northern  Fields.   The  principal  towns 

that  owe  their  growth  to  the  anthracite  coal  interests  are  Pottsville,  Tamaqua, 

Mauch  [mouA:]  Chunk,  Wilkesbarre,  Pittston,  Scranton,  and  Carbondale. 

HAP.  On  the  map  of  the  Anthracite  Coal  Region,  point  to  the  Southern  Held.  In  what 
county  is  it  mainly?  What  are  the  principal  places  in  it?  Point  to  the  Middle  Field.  In 
what  three  counties  is  it?  What  are  the  principal  places  in  it?  In  what  county  is  the 
Northern  Field  ?    Name  three  important  places  in  this  Field. 

The  bitvminous  coal  interest  has  its  principal  center  at  Pittsburgh,  west  of 
the  Alleghany  Eidge.  In  this  part  of  the  State  the  bituminous  coal-field 
extends  through  24  counties. 

Iron.  —  Almost  every  county  in  the  State  contains  deposits  of  iron  in  one 
or  other  of  its  many  forms.  It  exists  in  the  greatest  measure  and  in  its  most 
valuable  ore  in  the  bituminous  coal  region,  especially  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Pittsburgh,  where  the  mines  have  been  worked  to  a  vast  extent  for  many  years. 

Other  Mining  Products.  —  Petroleum,  or  coal-oil,  is  another  of  the  valu- 
able products  of  the  State.  The  Oil  Region,  in  the  northwestern  section,  sup- 
plies immense  quantities  of  petroleum  for  export  and  for  domestic  use.  Some 
of  the  towns  engaged  in  the  oil  business  are  Titusville,  Meadville,  Oil  City, 
Franklin,  and  Erie. 

Note.  —  Petroleum  is  an  oil,  dark  colored,  and  thicker  than  common  oils.  The 
wells  are  sunk  into  the  earth  by  drills  in  the  same  manner  as  artesian  wells,  and  the 
oil  rises  to  the  surface.  It  now  forms  one  of  the  important  exports  of  the  United 
States.  Between  1860  and  1870  (inclu.sive)  there  were  produced  36,000,000  barrels 
of  petroleum,  a  large  portion  of  which  was  sent  abroad. 


Slate  and  marble  are  found  in  great  abundance,  and  the  working  of  the  quar- 
ries is  a  very  large  and  important  business. 

Copper,  zinc,  plumbago,  and  lead  are  mined  in  considerable  quantities. 

Salt-springs  exist  in  several  sections,  and  several  million  dollars'  worth  of 
salt  are  made  annually.     Medicinal  springs,  also,  are  numerous  and  valuable. 

Agriculture.  —  Agriculture  is  carried  on  with  great  skill.  The  best  soils 
are  in  the  limestone  and  river  valleys. 

The  staple  farm  products  are  wheat  and  corn  ;  but  large  quantities  of  buck- 
wheat, rye,  hay,  orchard  fruits,  and  garden  products  are  raised. 

In  live-stock  Pennsylvania  ranks  as  the  fourth  State  in  the  Union  ;  in  the 
production  of  butter  and  cheese  it  ranks  next  to  New  York. 

Manufactures.  —  The  various  manufactures  of  Pennsylvania  employ  con- 
stantly from  300,000  to  400,000  hands. 

The  value  of  articles  yearly  manufactured  is  over  $  700,000,000. 

Leading  articles  of  manufacture  are  heavy  iron  machinery,  railroad  iron, 
sawed  lumber,  cotton  and  woolen  goods,  clothing,  boots  and  shoes,  paper,  glass 
and  glass-ware,  carpets,  perfumery,  distilled  spirits,  etc. 

Commerce.  —  Though  the  State  has  no  sea-coast,  its  noble  river,  the  Dela- 
ware, gives  it  easy  communication  with  the  ocean,  and  aff'ords  excellent  harbors. 

The  domestic  commerce  is  very  large,  and  for  this  it  has  great  facilities  in  its 
shore  "line  on  Lake  Erie,  in  the  Ohio  River  comiecting  it  with  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  and  in  an  extensive  system  of  internal  improvements. 

Internal  Improvements.  —  Pennsylvania,  like  New  York,  has  an  exten- 
sive system  of  railroads  and  canals.  The  Pennsylvania  Central  Railroad 
stretches  across  the  State  and  has  numerous  branches  and  connections  with 
all  important  points  West,  North,  and  South.  A  great  number  of  railroads 
penetrate  the  coal  and  iron  regions. 

The  Delaware,  Schuylkill,  and  Susquehanna  rivers  and  their  tributaries 
aff'ord  water  for  an  extensive  system  of  canals  which  are  used  in  transport- 
ing coal  and  iron,  while  in  the  western  coal-field  the  Alleghany  and  Mononga- 
hela  serve  the  same  purpose.  The  State  is  traversed  by  about  4,000  miles 
of  railroad  and  1,000  miles  of  canal. 

Bducation.  —  William  Penn,  the  illustrious  founder  of  this  State,  said: 
"  That  which  makes  a  good  constitution  must  keep  it,  viz.  men  of  wisdom  and 
virtue,  qualities  which,  because  they  descend  not  with  worldly  inheritances, 
must  be  carefully  propagated  by  a  virtuous  education  of  youth."  This  wise 
injunction  has  resulted  in  a  noble  system  of  public  schools,  which  are  now 
attended  by  nearly  a  million  of  pupils. 

The  higher  education  is  cared  for  in  a  large  number  of  colleges  and  univer- 
sities. Ten  State  normal  schools  are  in  operation,  with  an  attendance  of 
3,000  students.     There  are  also  various  theological,  law,  and  medical  schools. 

The  State  has  provided  homes,  food,  clothing,  and  instruction,  at  an  ex- 
pense of  $  6,000,000  for  7,500  children  orphaned  and  left  destitute  by  the 
casualties  of  the  late  civil  war. 

Political  Divisions.  —  Pennsylvania  is  divided  into  66  coimties,  with 
many  hundred  cities,  boroughs,  and  towns.  In  addition  to  the  metropolis 
(Philadelphia)  and  the  capital  (Harrisburg),  the  most  important  places  are  :  — 


Names. 


Pittsburgh. 


Advantages  of  Location. 


Situation  at  confluence  of  Alleghany 
and  Monongahela  rivers,  forming 
the  Ohio.  Rich  coal,  iron,  and 
oil  region. 


Allegheny  City.   Proximity  to  Pittsburgh 

Scranton. 

Beading. 

Lancaster. 


Erie. 

Williamsport. 

Allentown. 

Pottsville. 

York. 

Easton, 

Altoona. 

Norristown. 

Wilkesbarre. 

Chester, 


On  the  Lackawan'na  River,  in  the 

anthracite  coal  region. 
On  the  Schuylkill :  center  of  a  rich 

farming  region. 
Center  of  a  farming  region  S.  E.  of 

Harrisburg. 
On  the  southeast  shore  of  Lake  Erie, 
On  the  West  Branch. 
On  the  Lehigh. 


In  Southern  anthracite  coal-field. 
Railroad  point  south  of  Harrisburg. 
Confluence  of  Lehigh  and  Delaware 

rivers. 
East  side  of   Alleghany   Mts.    (Is 

1,200  feet  above  the  sea-leveL) 
Proximity  to  Philadelphia. 
In  the  Northern  coal-field. 
Near  mouth  of  Delaware. 


Industries  and  Characteristics. 


Center  of  the  bituminous  coal  interest. 
Most  extensive  iron-works,  rolling- 
mills,  founderies,  machine-shops,  and 
glass-works  in  the  United  States : 
these  works,  if  arranged  in  a  single 
row,  would  have  a  fh>ntage  of  40  miles. 

Extensive  iron,  steel,  brass,  and  glass 
works.     Large  coal-trade. 

Large  coal  and  iron  business. 

Iron-works.    General  trade. 
Manufacturing  and  agricultural  trade. 

Lake  trade.     Varied  manufactures. 

Manufacture  and  sale  of  lumber.   Trade. 

Extensive  iron-works,  furnaces,  foun- 
deries, rolling-mills,  spike-works ; 
tanneries,  woolen-mUls,  etc. 

Coal-mining. 

Manufacture  of  cars,  castings,  and  paper. 

Coal,  iron,  and  lumber  trade  ;  flouring- 
mills,  iron-works,  etc. 

Building  of  cars  and  locomotives. 

Manufacturing. 
Extensive  coal-trade. 
Building  of  iron  ships,  cotton  and  woolen 
mills,  print-works,  and  rolling-mills. 


NEW  JERSEY  AND   DELAWAER 


43 


NEW    JERSEY. 


THE   QAROEN   STATE. 


L  Physical  Features.  —  The  southern  half  belongs  to  the  Atlan- 
tic Plain ;  the  northern  section  is  hilly  or  mountainous. 

The  long  line  of  sea-coast  south  of  Sandy  Hook  is  hemmed  in 
by  a  chain  of  low  sand-islands ;  hence  the  State  possesses  few 
good  harbors,  but  it  has  a  water-front  on  New  York  Bay. 

2.  The  leading  industries  are  agriculture,  market-gardening,  and 
manufacturing,  which  are  carried  on  with  great  skill  and  success. 
Mining  is  also  an  important  industry. 

3.  Cities.  —  Newark,  the  largest  city  in  the  State,  is  extensively 
engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  india-rubber  and  leather  goods, 
clothing,  jewelry,  and  many  other  articles.  Trenton,  the  capital, 
at  the  head  of  steamboat  navigation  on  the  Delaware,  has  great 
iron-works,  rolling-mills,  porcelain-ldlns,  etc. 


SPECIAL  GEOORAFHT  FOR  NEW  JISRSET   CLASSES. 

ly  New  Jetsey  classes  should  now  make  a  full  study  of  the  geography  of  their  State,  following 
the  Outline  on  page  30.     Refer  to  tlie  County  map,  page  S8. 
Area,  7,815  square  miles.    Population  (census  of  1880),  1,131,116. 

Outline  and  Extent  — The  winding  course  of  the  Delaware,  which  forms 
the  boundary  of  New  Jersey  on  the  west,  and  the  inbreakings  of  the  ocean  on 
the  east,  give  the  State  an  irregukr  outline.  Its  greatest  length  from  north 
to  south  is  about  167  miles  ;  its  greatest  width  is  70  miles. 

Surface^.  —  The  northwestern  part  of  the  State  is  traversed  by  the  Blue 
Mountaiia,  a  ridge  of  the  Appalachian  system,  which  enter  New  Jersey  from 
Peimsylvania.  Other  local  ridges  nearly  parallel  with  the  Blue  Mountains 
extend  through  the  northern  part.  Along  the  Hudson  River  for  20  miles  is 
a  precipitous  and  picturesque  wall  of  rocks  known  as  the  Palisades.  The 
southeastern  half  of  the  State  belongs  to  the  Atlantic  Plain. 

Coast.  —  From  the  lev,  projecting  sand-bank  called  Sandy  Hook,  opposite 
the  Narrows,  to  the  similarly  formed  point  of  Cape  May,  the  whole  eastern 
coast  consists  of  a  long  line  of  sandy  beaches,  here  and  there  interrupted  by 
inlets,  and  enclosing  narrow,  shallow  lagoons,  lichiud  which  extends  for  several 
miles  inland  a  low,  marshy  tract.  Good  harbors  are  few  ;  still,  Rar'itan  Bay, 
south  of  Staten  Island  (N.  Y.),  affords  ready  communication  from  Perth 
Amboy  to  the  ocean  ;  and  Newark  Bay,  north  of  Staten  Island,  has  navigable 
communications  with  New  York  Buy  and  Karitan  Bay,  through  the  narrow 
strait  called  the  "  Kills,"  and  through  Staten  Island  Sound.  (See  map  of  New 
York  and  Vicinity,  page  31.) 

Rivers.  —  All  the  rivers  of  the  State  belong  to  the  Atlantic  system  ;  and, 
with  the  exception  of  the  Hudson  and  Delaware,  which  are  boundary  rivers, 
most  or  the  streams  are,  from  the  confonnation  of  the  country,  short. 

The  most  important  rivers  are  the  Passaic  [pas-sa'ii]  arid  Hack'ensack,  enter- 
ing into  Newark  Bay  ;  Raritan  River,  draining  the  northern  and  central 
parts,  and  flowing  into  the  bay  of  the  same  name  ;   Maurice  River  in  the 


south,  discharging  itself  into  Delaware  Bay  ;  and  Great  Egg  Harbor  and  Little 
Egg  Harbor  rivers,  flowing  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 

Minerals.  —  The  mineral  resources  of  the  State  are  very  valuable.  The 
most  important  minerals  are  marl,  iron,  and  zinc. 

The  marl  is  found  in  extensive  beds  in  many  parts  of  the  State.  Spread 
on  the  sandy  soil  it  renders  it  exceedingly  productive,  and  its  use  has  worke<l 
wonders  in  New  Jersey  agriculture. 

Iron.  —  In  the  northern  part  are  great  deposits  of  magnetic  iron-ore.  The 
mines  in  Morris  and  Sussex  counties  are  the  most  largely  developed.  The  total 
product  of  ore  in  the  State  exceeds  700,000  tons  annually.  The  total  product 
of  the  blast-furnaces  is  more  than  150,000  tons  of  \>in-itini  per  year. 

The  zinc-mines  of  Sussex  are  among  the  most  valuable  in  the  world. 

Agriculture.  —  New  Jersey  is  known  as  the  "  Garden  State,"  because  it 
makes  a  marked  sijecialty  of  growing  fruits  and  vegetables.  Skillful  husbandry 
raises  from  the  thousands  of  gardens  and  farms  immense  quantities  of  garden- 
vegetables,  sweet- potatoes,  melons,  berries,  jx^aches,  etc.,  which  are  shipped  by 
railroad  to  supply  the  great  markets  of  New  York  City  and  Philmlelphia. 

Manufactures.  —  Lying  lietween  the  coal-fields  of  Pennsylvania  and  the 
gieat  city  of  New  York,  the  State  has  easy  access  both  to  the  power  that 
drives  its  machinery  and  to  the  market  where  its  manufactures  are  sold. 
In  the  manufacture  of  hardware  this  State  ranks  next  to  Pennsylvania  and 
New  York.  Locomotives  used  in  all  parts  of  the  country  are  largely  made. 
Other  manufactures  are  leather  and  india-rubber  goods,  cotton  and  woolen 
goo<ls,  jewelry,  silver  and  glass  ware,  clothing,  chemicals,  paints,  etc. 

Education.  —  New  Jersey  has  a  fine  system  of  public  schools.  The  higher 
institutions  of  learning  are  the  College  of  New  Jersey  at  Princeton,  Rutgers 
College  at  New  Brunswick,  and  the  State  Normal  School  at  Trenton. 

Cities.  —  Besides  Newark  and  Trenton  the  most  important  cities  are  :  — 


Name. 


Jersey  City. 

Fat'erson. 

Elizabeth. 
Ho'boken. 

Camden. 

Hew  Brunswick. 


Advantages  of  Location. 


Situated  on  west  shore  of  New 
York  Bay. 

Proximity  to  New  York  (17  miles) 
and  water-power  from  the  Passaic 
River. 

Easy  access  to  New  York  City  by 
numerous  railroads. 

Opposite  New  York  City. 


Opposite  Philadelphia. 

On  the  Raritan  River.  Northern 
terminus  of  Raritan  and  Delaware 
Canal. 


Industries  and  Characteristics. 


Manufacturing  and  commerce  Impor- 
tant railroad  terminus.  Starting-point 
of  several  ocean  stean:ship  lines. 

Machine-slio])S,  locomotive  and  steam- 
engine  works,  cotton  and  silk  manu- 
factories, and  paper-mills. 

Considerable  manufacturing.  Favorite 
place  of  suburban  residence. 

Starting-point  of  several  Transatlantic 
steamship  lines.  Seat  of  the  Stevens 
Institute  of  Technology. 

Ship-yards,  iron-foundcries,  chemical 
and  glass  works,  etc. 

Manufacture  of  india-rubber  goods,  pa- 
)ier-hangings,  hardware,  etc  Seat  ol 
Rutgers  College. 


Pupils  may  find  out  and  state  something  about  (tocb  of  these  additional  cities,  towns,  and 
villages:  — 

Orange.  MillvUIe.  Freehold  Newton. 

Flainfleld.  Hackensack.  Princeton. 

Morristown.  Salem.  Somerville. 

Fhillipsburg.  Bordentown.  Flemington. 


Bridgeton. 
Rah  way. 
Burlington. 


Keyport. 
Woodboty. 


DELAWARE. 

L  Description.  —  In  soil  and  surface  Delaware  resembles  New 
Jersey,  from  which  it  is  separated  only  by  Delaware  Bay. 

2,  Indnstries.  —  The  soil  is  generally  fertile,  and  agriculture  is 
a  leading  pursuit,  the  chief  products  being  wheat,  vegetables, 
peaches,  and  other  fruits.     The  manufacturing  interest  is  large. 

3.  Cities.  —  Wilmington,  the  only  large  city  in  Delaware,  man- 
ufactures railroad-cars,  carriages,  paper,  powder,  and  builds  iron 
steamships.     Dover  is  the  capital. 

For  Delaware  nillW  —  [Delaware  classes  may  make  a  detailed  study  of  their  State  by 
following  the  Outline  on  page  30.J  Additional  Facts.  —  1  Area  cjf  the  State,  2,050  square  miles  ; 
population  in  1S80,  146,608.  S.  The  State  is  divi<led  Into  three  counties,  viz.  :  New  Castle,  Kent, 
and  Sussex.  S.  The  peach  crop  is  very  hirge  (from  3,000,000  to  5,000,000  baskets  annually).  4.  The 
chief  inanulkcturvs  are  those  of  flour,  lumber,  boots  and  shoes,  iron,  leather,  guniiowdcr,  can, 
carriages,  and  wagons. 

leV  State  the  location  of  the  following  pUces:  —  Smybna,  North  Miltoro,  Camcem,  Freocbica, 
New  Castle,  Delaware  Crrv,  Middlctowm,  Newark,  Odessa,  BEAroao,  Lewis,  Laubil, 
Milton,  Soirrii  Milforo,  Oeoruktowx. 


44 


THE    ATLANTIC    STATES. 


MARYLAND. 


.YSTER-DREDQINQ    AND    DUOK-SHOOTINQ    IN    CHESAPEAKE   BAY. 

L  Physical  Features.  —  This  State  has  a  very  irref;ular  outline, 
being  bisected  by  Chesapeake  Bay,  which  divides  the  mainland 
from  the  peninsula  called  the  Eastern  Shore.  The  central  and 
western  parts  are  crossed  by  ranges  of  the  Alleghany  Mountains. 

2.  The  leading  industries  are  (1)  agriculture,  the  chief  products 
being  wheat,  corn,  and  tobacco ;  (2)  manufacturing ;  (3)  the  mining 
of  coal  in  the  mountain  region;  and  (4)  commerce,  for  which 
Chesapeake  Bay  affords  fine  facilities. 

3.  Cities.  —  Baltimore  is  a  beautiful  city,  favorably  situated  for 
commerce  and  manufactures.  It  ranks  as  one  of  the  greatest  of 
flour,  tobacco,  and  oyster  markets.  Annapolis,  a  small  city,  is  the 
capital.     Tlie  United  States  Naval  Academy  is  located  here. 


SPECIAL  GEOGRAPHY  FOR  MARYLAND  CLASSES. 

Maryland  classes  should  now  make  a  full  study  of  the  geography  of  their  State,  following 
the  Outline  on  page  30.     See  County  map,  page  38. 

Area,  12,210  square  miles.    Popalation  (census  1880),  034,943. 

Outline  and  Extent.  —  This  State  is  very  irregular  in  its  outline.  It 
occupies  an  e.xtent  of  about  190  miles  on  its  northern  boundary,  but  contracts 
in  the  west  so  that  its  southern  limit  has  hardly  half  that  extent,  even  includ- 
ing Chesapeake  Bay.     Its  greatest  breadth  from  north  to  south  is  120  miles. 

Surface.  —  The  surface  on  both  shores  of  Chesapeake  Ray  is  level,  and  the 
soil  sandy.  A  range  of  hills  enters  the  State  where  the  northern  boundary 
strikes  the  Susquehanna  and  extends  in  a  southwest  direction  to  the  Potomac 
River,  which  it  intersects  about  10  miles  above  Washington  City.  This  ridge 
divides  the  alluvial  from  the  movmtainous  part  of  the  State. 

Western  Maryland,  comprising  a  long  but  narrow  tract  between  the  Poto- 
mac and  the  southern  boundary  line  of  Pennsylvania,  is  traversed  from  north 
to  south  by  various  ridges  of  the  Appalachian  system,  bearing  different  local 
names.     The  extreme  western  part  is  crossed  by  the  main  Alleghany  range. 

Rivers  and  Bays.  —  Chesapeake  Bay  extends  northward  about  120  miles 
within  this  State,  with  a  breadth  ranging  from  7  to  20  miles.  It  is  navigable 
for  large  vessels  throughout  its  whole  extent. 

Nearly  all  the  rivers  of  the  State  ultimately  disohai^e  their  waters  into 
Chesapeake  Bay.  It  receives  at  the  southern  extremity  of  the  State  the  large 
river  Potomac  (navigable  to  Washington),  besides  the  Patuxent  and  Patapsco 
from  the  west,  the  Susquehanna  from  the  north,  and  various  minor  streams 
from  the  east. 

Mining.  —  The  western  mountain  section  shares  with  Pennsylvania  the 
coal  and  iron  deposits  which  constitute  the  mineral  wealth  of  that  State.  The 
coal-trade  has  its  center  at  Cumberland.  The  annual  value  of  mining-products 
is  about  $4,000,000. 

Agriculture.  —  The  soil  is  fertile,  and  agriculture  is  a  leading  occupation. 
The  three  chief  farm  products  are  com,  wheat,  and  tobacco  ;  of  the  last  article 
about  26,000,000  pounds  are  raised  annually.     Besides  these  large  quantities 


of  oats,  rye,  buckwheat,  flax,  potatoes,  pease,  beans,  fruit,  butter,  honey,  and 
wool  are  produced. 

Fish  and  Fo'wL  —  The  shores  and  waters  of  Chesapeake  Bay  are  unrivaled 
for  the  variety,  excellence,  and  abundance  of  their  lish  and  game.  Among 
these  are  the  shad  and  herring,  oysters,  terrapins,  and  the  canvas-back  duck. 
The  taking  of  these  fish  and  fowl  for  domestic  use  and  for  export  employs  large 
numbers  of  people,  and  is  a  very  important  source  of  wealth. 

Manufactures.  —  Maryland  has  a  large  amount  of  capital  employed  in  a 
great  variety  of  manufactures. 

The  leading  articles  of  manufacture  are  cigars,  chewing  and  smoking  tobacco, 
flour,  refined  sugar,  canned  fruits  and  oysters,  clothing,  iron-work,  and  boots 
and  shoes. 

The  total  value  of  manufactured  products  is  nearly  $80,000,000  a  year. 

Commerce.  —  The  foreign  commerce  of  Maryland  is  carried  on  chiefly 
through  the  city  of  Baltimore,  which  has  all  the  advantages  of  a  seaport.  The 
chief  exports  are  tobacco,  flour,  wheat,  coal,  iron,  and  canned-oysters. 

Education.  —  Maryland  has  an  established  system  of  public  schools,  and 
those  of  Baltimore  are  especially  noted  for  their  excellence.  The  State  has 
also  several  colleges,  universities,  and  professional  schools. 

Places.  —  In  additioij  to  Baltimore  and  Annapolis  the  principal  places  are 
Cumberland,  the  center  of  the  coal  trade  ;  Frederick,  the  trading  center  for 
a  fine  farming  region  ;  and  Hagerstown,  an  active  manufacturing  and  trading 
point. 

State  the  location  of  the  following  places :  — 


Westmineter. 
Chesapeake  City. 
Elkton. 


Cambridge. 
Havre  de  Grace. 
Ellicott  City. 


Chestertown. 

I.aureL 

Centerville. 


Easton. 

St.  Michael's. 

Sharpsburg. 


WiUiamsport. 

Salisbury. 

Newtown. 


DISTRICT   OP    COLUMBIA. 


UNITED   STATfcS   TREASURY. 


1.  This  District  is  a  territory  of  the  United  States,  occupying 
an  irregular  area  of  70  square  miles  on  the  Maryland  side  of  the 
Potomac. 

2.  Its  Importance.  —  Its  national  importance  arises  from  the 
fact  that  it  is  the  political  center  of  our  country,  containing  Wash- 
ington, the  capital  of  the  United  States. 

IfoTE.  — The  District  had  formerly  a  territorial  government,  but  at  present  it  is 
governed  by  Congress  directly,  through  a  Committee  on  the  District  of  Columbia. 

3.  "Washington  City  (population  147,293),  as  the  capital,  contains 
the  public  buildings  in  which  is  transacted  the  public  business  of 
the  three  branches  of  the  general  government,  legislative,  execu- 
tive, and  judicial.  Geokgetown  is  an  attractive  place  of  suburban 
residence,  and  has  considerable  commerce. 

Public  Buildings  and  Institutions.  —  Among  the  famous  buildings  and 
other  objects  of  interest  in  Washington  are  the  Capitol,  one  of  the  most 
magnificent  and  imposing  structures  in  the  world  ;  the  Treasury  buildi^ig,  con- 
structed in  massive  loniQ  architecture  ;  the  General  Post-Office  ;  the  Patent 

ffice  building  ;  the  Smithsonian  Institution  and  Museums ;  the  Naval  Ob- 
servatory ;  and  the  Botanical  Gardens, 


VIKGINIA  AND   WEST  VIRGINIA. 


45 


VIRGINIA 


L  Physical  Features.  —  Virginia  is  divided  into  two  sections :  (1) 
the  Western  section,  including  the  Blue  Eidge  and  the  mountain- 
region  to  the  west  of  it ;  (2)  the  Eastern  section,  which  consists  of 
a  pliiin  sloping  from  the  Blue  Ridge  to  tide-water. 

2.  Besoorces.  —  This  State  has  a  generally  fertile  soil,  great  min- 
eral wealth,  and  fine  advantages  for  manufacturing. 

3.  Industries.  —  The  leading  industry  is  agriculture,  the  prin- 
cipal staples  being  tobacco,  wheat,  and  com.  The  mining,  manu- 
facturing, and  fishing  interests  are  important. 

4.  The  Capital  —  Richmond,  the  capital  and  largest  city,  is  at 
the  head  of  tide-water  on  the  James  River.  It  contains  exten- 
sive tobacco  factories  and  warehouses,  flour-mills,  and  iron-works. 


SPECIAL  OEOaRAFHy  FOR  VIROINIA  CI.ASSES. 

tf    Viiginia  cUsna  thould  now  make  a  full  study  of  tbe  gaognptay  of  tbelr  State,  following  the 

Outline  on  page  30. 
Area,  42,450  square  miles.    Population  (census  of  1880),  1,512,565. 

Outline.  —  The  form  of  Virginw  is  that  of  an  irregular  triangle,  liaving  for 
its  base  a  straight  line  forming  the  northern  boimdary  of  North  Carolina  and 
part  of  the  northern  boundary  of  Tennessee. 

Surface.  —  The  Appalachian  system  of  mountains  traverses  the  State  from 
southwest  to  northeast  in  two  main  parallel  ridges,  —  the  Alleghany  Moun- 
tains and  the  Blue  Ridge.  The  Peaks  of  Otter  in  the  Blue  Ridge  (nearly 
4,000  feet  high)  are  the  loftiest  summits  in  the  State. 

Bays  and  Rivers.  —  Chesapeake  Bay,  which  has  numerous  fine  harbors, 
has  its  outlet  in  this  State,  though  more  than  half  its  length  is  in  Maryland. 

Most  of  the  rivers  of  the  State  flow  into  Chesapeake  Bay.  The  principal 
of  these  are :  the  Potomac,  Rappahannock,  York,  James,  with  its  principal 
affluent  the  Appomattox,  and  Shenandoah. 

The  tpettem  slope  toward  the  Ohio  is  drained  by  various  head-streams  of  the 
Ohio  and  Teniieswce  rivers. 

Mineral  Resomrces.  —  The  mineral  resources  are  vast,  the  mountains  con- 
taining rich  deposits  of  coal  and  iron,  and  valuable  marble,  slate,  and  stone 
quarries.     The  salt-springs  are  an  important  source  of  wealth. 

Agricultnre.  —  Agriculture  is  the  leading  industry,  much  of  the  soil  being 
well  adapted  to  farming.  Com,  wheat,  and  tol)acco  are  the  great  staples.  The 
toljBcco  yield  is  second  only  to  that  of  Kentucky. 


Manufactures.  —  The  leading  articles  of  manufacture  are  prepared  tobacco 
and  flour.  The  rich  deposits  of  coal  and  iron  in  this  State,  together  with  its 
unlimited  water-power,  must  make  Virginia  a  great  manufacturing  State. 

Education.  —  The  State  is  rapidly  advancing  in  facilities  for  free  education. 
Among  the  great  seats  of  learning  are  the  University  of  Virginia  at  Charlottes- 
ville, Washington  and  Lee  University  and  the  Military  Institute  at  Lexington. 

Cities.  —  After  Richmond  the  most  important  places  are  :  — 


Names. 


Horfolk.        ) 
Fortsmonth.  > 

Fetersborg. 

Alexandria. 
Lynchburg. 


Staonton. 

Winchester. 
Danville. 

Manchester. 


Advantages  of  Location. 


Mouth  of  Elizabeth  River. 

Head  of  tide-water  on  the  Appo- 
mattox. 

On  the  Potomac,  near  Washington. 

On  James  River  and  James  River 
and  Kanawha  CanaL  Salubrious 
climate. 

In  the  Shenandoah  Valley. 


In  the  Shenandoah  Valley. 
On  Dan  River.     Water-power. 

On  the  James,  opposite  Richmond. 


Industries  and  Characteristics. 


Largo   export   trade.      Oyatering.      United 

States  Navy- Yard. 
Tobacco  and  cotton  factories,  manufacture 

of  pai>er,  flour,  soap,  iron,  etc 
Trade  by  river,  canal,  and  railroad. 
Great  manufacture  of  alt  kinds  of  prepared 

tobacco.      Miscellaneous   manufacturing. 

Fine  educational  facilities. 
Imiwrtant  trading-point    Seat  of  Lunatic 

Asylum  and  Institution  for  Deaf,  Dumb, 

and  Blind. 
Trading-point  of  a  rich  fanning  region. 
Center  of  finest  tobacco  region  in  the  world. 

Tobacco  trade  and  manufacture. 
Manufacture  of  tobacco,  cotton,  paper,  iron. 


WEST    VIRGINIA. 

L  History.  —  West  Virginia  formed  a  part  of  the  State  of  Vir- 
ginia until  18G2,  when  it  was  organized  as  a  separate  State. 

2.  Physical  Feattires,  —  In  surface  West  Virginia  is  a  mountain- 
ous State.  The  eastern  part  is  crossed  by  several  parallel  ridges  of 
the  Alleghanies,  and  its  western  part  is  a  hilly  table-land  with  fer- 
tile river-bottoms,  sloping  toward  the  Ohio  River. 

Scenery.  —  This  State  abounds  with  magnificent  mountain  scenery.  Among  the 
special  points  of  uoto  is  Harper's  Ferry,  where  the  Potomac  breaks  through  the  Blue 
Ridge,  forming  .stupendous  walls  of  rock  on  either  hand. 

3.  Resources.  —  This  State  has  rich  deposits  of  coal  and  iron, 
and  numerous  oil-wells  and  salt-springs.  The  mountain  pastures 
are  admirably  adapted  to  stock-raising,  and  the  rich  river-bottoms 
yield  corn,  tobacco,  and  garden  products. 

4.  The  leading  industries  are  mining  and  agriculture.  The  com- 
merce of  the  State  is  largely  by  way  of  the  Mississippi  Valley. 

5.  Cities. — Whkeling,  on  the  Ohio,  is  the  chief  business  city ; 
it  contains  numerous  iron-works  ami  manufactories.  Charleston, 
the  capital,  on  the  Kiinawha,  is  noted  for  its  salt-works. 

K^  West  Virginia  classes  may  make  a  detailed  study  of  the  geography  of  their  State 
by  following  the  Outline  on  page  30. 


HARPtn-a  rumv. 


46 


THE  ATLANTIC   STATES. 


NORTH    CAROLINA 


L    Physical    Features.  —  The 

'  greater  part  of  North  Carolina 
belongs  to  the  Atlantic  Plain. 
The  State  may  be  divided  into 
three  regions :  (1)  the  low, 
sandy,  or  swampy  coast  region ; 
(2)  the  "  Pine  Barrens  ";  (3)  the 
foot-hill  and  mountain  region. 

2.  Industries.  —  Agriculture  is 
the  leading  industry ;  the  chief 
products    are     sweet -potatoes, 
corn,  cotton,  and  tobacco.     In  the  production  of  tar,  pitch,  turpen- 
tine, and  rosin  this  is  the  leading  State. 
3.  Cities. — Wilmington  is  the  chief  port.   Ealeigh  is  the  capital. 


OFF  HATTEHA8, — TURPENTINE   PINES. 


SPECIAL  GEOGRAPHY  FOR  NORTH  CAROLINA  CLASSES. 

1^"  North  Carolina  classes  s^'C'iId  now  make  a  full  study  of  the  geography  of  their  Stat«,  follow- 
ing Li',  Outline  on  page  30.    See  map,  page  31. 

Area,  52,250  square  miles.    Population  (census  of  1880),  1,399,750. 

Outline  and  Extent.  —  In  outline  this  State  is  irregular,  having  its  great- 
est extent  from  east  to  west,  and  being  broadest  near  the  center.  Its  greatest 
length  is  450  miles  ;  its  greatest  breadth  180  miles. 

Coast.  —  The  coast  is  low  and  fringed  by  long  sandy  spits  and  islands, 
while  sand-bars  obstruct  the  mouths  of  the  rivers,  thus  rendering  navigation 
difficult.  Two  great  inbreakings  of  the  sea  form  Albemarle  Sound  and  Pam- 
lico Sound.     The  most  easterly  cape  is  Hatteras,  off  which  are  great  storms. 

Surface.  —  The  ranges  of  the  Appalachian  system  are  so  far  to  the  west 
that  the  State  may  be  said  to  belong  to  the  Atlantic  Plain  ;  but  this  pre- 
sents in  its  various  parts  very  different  characteristics.  The  marshy  coast 
region  extends  about  60  mUes  inland  ;  then  come  the  "  Pine  Barrens,"  having 
a  breadth  of  about  50  miles  ;  while  westward  to  the  base  of  the  Blue  Ridge 
is  the  upland  district.  The  mountain  region  of  the  west  is  a  wild  and  precipi- 
tous country  crossed  by  the  Blue  Ridge,  the  Alleghany  Mountains,  and  the 
Black  Mountains  (Mount  Mitchell,  6,476  feet  high). 

River  System.  —  The  principal  watershed  of  this  State  is  formed  by  the 
Blue  Ridge,  and  the  chief  rivers  are  the  Chowan,  Roanoke,  Tar,  Neuse, 
Cape  Fear,  and  Yadkin,  a  tributary  of  the  Great  Pedee,  and  the  Catawba,  the 
name  given  to  the  upper  course  of  the  Wateree.  The  various  streams  in  the  west- 
ern mountain  section  flow  westward  and  form  a  part  of  the  Mississippi  system. 

Forest  Products.  —  The  products  of  the  pine,  namely,  pitch,  tar,  turpen- 
tine, and  ro.sin,  are  the  characteristic  exports.  The  annual  value  of  these 
products  is  two  and  a  half  million  dollars,  —  about  three  times  the  yield  of 
these  articles  in  all  the  rest  of  the  United  States. 

Farm  Products.  —  The  leading  crops  are  those  of  tobacco,  cotton,  com, 
rice,  sweet-potatoes,  and  peanuts. 

To'wns.  — •  In  addition  to  Wilmington  and  Raleigh  are  the  following  cities  : 
New  Berne,  with  saw-mills  and  turpentine  distilleries  ;  Fayetteville,  a  flour- 
ishing trading-point ;  and  Charlotte,  the  leading  city  of  the  southwestern 
part.  The  places  next  in  size  are  Beaufort,  Washington,  Asheville,  Tarboro, 
Edenton,  Kinston,  Plymouth,  Goldsboro,  Elizabeth  City,  Wilson,  and  Oxford. 


SOUTH   CAROLINA. 


-7f:l{-yr. 


L  The  natural  divisions  of 

South  Carolina,  or  the  "  Pal- 
metto State,"  are:  the  low- 
lands along  the  sea-coast; 
the  pine  region,  or  "Mid- 
dle Country,"  and  westward 
of  this  the  "Ridge,"  where 
the  surface  rises  by  a  steep  and  sudden  elevation. 

2.  The  leading  industry  is  agriculture.  The  chief  exports  are 
cotton  and  rice ;  and  in  the  production  of  the  latter  article  South 
Carolina  is  the  leading  State. 

3.  Cities.  —  Charleston,  the  largest  city,  is  engaged  in  manufac- 
turing and  commerce.     Columbia  is  the  capital 


RICE    PLANTATION. 


SPECIAL  GEOGRAPHY  FOR  SOUTH   CAROLINA   CLASSES. 

f^'  South  Carolina  classes  should  now  make  a  full  study  of  the  geography  of  their  State,  follow- 
ing the  Outline  on  page  30.    See  map,  page  31. 

Area,  30,570  square  miles.    Population  (census  of  1880),  995,677. 

Outline  and  Extent.  —  In  outline  this  State  is  irregularly  triangular. 
Its  breadth  north  and  south  on  the  meridian  of  Savannah  is  about  200  miles, 
and  its  greatest  length  about  300  miles.     It  has  above  200  miles  of  seaboard. 

Coast  and  Harbors.  —  Its  coast  presents  in  a  marked  manner  the  features 
of  the  South  Atlantic  seaboard  States  ;  namely,  shoals  and  sand-bars,  shallow 
sounds,  low  islands,  cypress-swamps,  and  open  marshes. 

River  System.  —  All  its  rivers  belong  to  the  Atlantic  system,  and  flow 
in  a  southerly  direction  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 

Climate.  —  South  Carolina  is  in  the  warm-temperate  zone,  and  its  semi- 
tropical  character  is  shown  in  the  growth  of  the  palmetto  and  magnolia,  the 
orange,  lemon,  and  fig. 

Agriculture.  —  The  chief  agricultural  products  are  cotton  and  rice. 

Cotton.  —  The  two  kinds  of  cotton  grown  in  this  State  are  the  long,  or  Sea 
Island  cotton,  and  the  short,  or  upland  cotton.  The  Sea  Island  cotton  is  of  the 
finest  quality,  and  is  distinguished  by  its  long,  silky  fiber. 

Rice.  —  Rice  is  more  extensively  produced  here  than  in  any  other  State.  South 
Carolina  was  the  first  place  on  the  American  continent  where  this  cereal  was  culti- 
vated.    The  seed  was  introduced  from  Madagascar. 

Inhabitants.  —  The  last  census  gives  399,105  whites  and  604,332  colored. 

To^ns.  —  In  addition  to  Charleston  and  Columbia  the  following  are  the 
leading  places  :  Greenville,  a  charming  place  of  summer  resort ;  Graniteville, 
which  has  extensive  cotton-mills  ;  Georgetown,  which  has  saw-mills,  turpentine- 
works,  and  local  trade  ;  and  Newberry,  which  has  extensive  granite-quarries. 
The  places  next  in  size  are  Beaufort,  Pickensville,  Winnsborough,  Spartanbui^, 
Camden,  Hamburg,  Sumter,  Anderson,  Marion,  Pendleton,  and  Cheraw. 


GEORGIA  AND  FLORIDA.  —  REVIEW. 


47 


GEORGIA. 

1.  Its  Rank. — Georgia  is  the  most  enterprising  and  flourishing 
of  the  Southern  States. 

2.  Physical  Features.  —  The  surface  is  low  and  level  along  the 
coast,  hilly  in  the  middle,  and  mountainous  in  the  north. 

3.  The  leading  industries  are  (1)  agriculture,  the  chief  products 
being  corn,  rice,  cotton,  and  sweet-potatoes ;  and  (2)  manufacturing, 
for  which  Georgia  has  fine  facilities,  and  in  which  it  surpasses  any 
other  Southern  State. 

4.  Cities.  —  Savannah  is  an  important  city  and  seaport ;  it  ships 
cotton,  rice,  and  lumber.  Atlanta,  the  capital,  is  an  important 
railroad  point,  and  has  iron-works  and  machine-shops. 


BPECIAIi  OEOORAPHT  FOR  GEORGIA   CI.ASSES. 

17*  GeoigU  classes  should  now  make  a  full  study  of  the  geography  of  their  State,  foUowisg  the 

Outline  ou  page  30. 

Area,  50,475  square  miles.     Population  (census  of  1880),  1,542,180. 

Outline  and  X!ztent.  —  Georgia  is  irregular  in  form.  It  has  an  extreme 
length  north  and  south  of  320  tnile.<(,  and  an  extreme  breadth  east  and  west  of 
251  miles. 

Surface.  —  In  Georgia,  the  Appalachian  system  begins  to  decline  into 
broken  ridges,  forming  in  the  northern  part  wild  and  picturestjue  scenery. 
The  character  of  the  coast  is  similar  to  that  of  the  Carolinas,  but  the  coast-line 
is  short  compared  with  the  extent  of  the  State. 

Okeefino'kee  Swamp  is,  next  to  the  Everglades  of  Florida  and  the  Dismal 
Swamp,  the  most  extensive  morass  in  the  United  States. 

River  System.  —  The  rivers  of  the  State  belong  either  to  the  Atlantic 
system  or  to  the  Gulf  system.  The  principal  rivers  of  the  Atlantic  system 
are  the  Savannah,  the  Ogee'chee,  the  Altamaha',  with  its  branches,  and  the 
Saltil'la  ;  those  of  the  Gulf  system  are  the  various  branches  of  the  Suwa'nee, 
the  Ocloconee,  the  Chattahoo'chee  and  its  tributary  the  Flint  River,  and  the 
Et'owah  and  Oostanaula,  forming  the  Coosl. 

Agriculture.  —  In  the  production  of  cotton  Georgia  ranks  second  only  to 
Mississippi,  the  crop  amounting  to  over  800,000  bales  annually.  In  rice- 
growing  it  is  second  only  to  South  Carolina,  and  in  the  production  of  sweet- 


potatoes  is  second  only  to  North  Carolina.  The  uplands  produce  wheat,  rye, 
hay,  and  Irish  potatoes. 

Minerals.  —  Gold,  iron,  coal,  marble,  and  slate  abound  in  the  State. 

Manufactures.  —  The  value  of  the  manufactured  articles,  chiefly  of  cotton 
and  iron,  uf  this  State  amoiuits  to  over  $30,000,000  annually. 

Education.  —  AU  the  leading  cities  of  Georgia  have  excellent  public  schools, 
and  great  interest  in  education  is  manifestetl  throughout  the  State. 

History.  —  Georgia  was  settled  by  General  James  Oglethorpe,  who  came 
from  England,  and  landed  near  Savannah.  It  was  one  of  the  original  thirteen 
colonies. 

Cities.  —  In  addition  to  Savannah  and  Atlanta  there  are  six  cities :  Au- 
gusta, noted  for  its  extensive  cotton-trade  and  its  cotton-mills  ;  Macon, 
noted  for  its  cotton-trade  and  superior  educational  advantages ;  Columbus, 
which  has  the  finest  cotton  and  woolen  mills  in  the  South  ;  Athens,  the  seat 
of  the  State  University  ;  Milledgeville,  the  former  capital ;  and  itome,  noted 
for  its  founderies  and  fine  water-works. 


FLORIDA. 

L  Physical  Features.  —  Florida  is  a  long  peninsula  with  a  gen- 
erally level  surface.  The  southern  section  is  a  continuous  morass, 
and  the  everglades  are  extensive  swamp-lands  overgrown  with 
cypress  and  water-oaks.     The  climate  is  semi-tropical. 

Note.  —  Florida  is  a  coral  formation  covered  with  soil  and  vegetation.  The 
Florida  Keys  are  a  number  of  low  coral  islands  0?  the  southern  point  of  the  pen- 
insula, noted  for  the  great  number  of  vessels  wrecked  there. 

2.  Eesources.  —  The  hot,  moist  climate  admirably  adapts  this 
State  for  the  culture  of  cotton,  sugar,  and  rice,  as  well  as  oranges, 
lemons,  and  other  tropical  fruits.  Other  valuable  exports  are 
cedar,  live-oak,  and  sponge. 

3.  Places. — Key  West  and  Jacksonville  are  the  largest  cities ; 

Tallahassee  is  the  capital.     The  first  named  city,  on  the  island  of 

Key  West,  is  strongly  fortified,  and  is  a  United  States  naval  station. 

Note.  —  Pensacola  and  Appalachicola  are  the  chief  ports  on  the  Gulf ;  Si. 
Augustine    is  a  lavorite  resort  fur  invalids. 


TOPICAL   REVIEW   OF   THE   ATLANTIC   SEABOARD   STATES. 


State*. 

Area. 

Population. 
Census  of  1880. 

Capitals. 

Chief  Citjr,  and  Fop.  (in  round 
numben)by  Census  of  ISKO. 

Industrial  Pnisuits. 

'  Maine. 

aq.  miles. 
88,040 

648,986 

Augusta. 

Portland  (34,000). 

Lumbering,  ship-building,  manufacturing,  fisheries. 

Kew  Hampshire. 

9,305 

846,991 

Concord. 

Manchester  (32,700). 

Manufacturing,  agriculture,  dairying. 

Vermont. 

9,665 

832,286 

Montpelier. 

Burlington  (11,400). 

Dairying,  agriculture,  pasturage,  marble-quarrying. 

NEW  EN3IiAND..  J 

Massaoliasettt. 

8,815 

1,783,085 

Boston. 

Boston  (868,000). 

Manufacturing,  fisheries,  commerce,  ship-building. 

Bhode  Island. 

1,250 

276,581 

/Providence.  \ 
iNewport      / 

Providence  (106,000). 

Manufacturing,  especially  cottons  and  woolens. 

L  Conneoticnt. 

4,990 

622,700 

Hartford. 

New  Haven  (63,000). 

Varied  manufacturing,  agriculture. 

r  Kew  York. 

49,170 

6,082,871 

Albany. 

New  York  (1,200,000). 

Agriculture,  manufacturing,  commerce. 

New  Jersey. 

7,815 

1,131,116 

Trenton. 

Newark  (186,000). 

Manufacturing,  agriculture,  mining,  horticidture. 

MIDDLB STATES..  J 

Pennsylvania. 

45,215 

4,282.891 

Harrisburg. 

Philadelphia  (847,000). 

Mining,  manufacturing,  agriculture,  commerce. 

Delaware. 

2,060 

146,608 

Dover. 

Wilmington  (42,000). 

Manufacturing,  horticulture. 

.  Karyland. 

12,210 

934,943 

Annapolis. 

Baltimore  (882,000). 

Mining,  agriculture,  manufacturing,  fisheries,  coin- 

Diitriot  of  Colombia. 

70 

177,624 

Washington. 

r  Virginia. 

42,450 

1,612,666 

Richmond. 

Richmond  (64,000). 

Raising  tobacco  and  grain,  mining,  fisheries 

West  Virginia. 

24,780 

618,457 

Charleston. 

Wheeling  (81,000). 

Mining,  pasturage,  agriculture. 

SOUTU  AlLAflTlU 
STATES 

Korth  Carolina. 

62,250 

1,399,780 

Raleigh. 

Wilmington  (17,400). 

Agriculture,  manufactures  of  pitch,  tar,  etc 

Boatb  Carolina. 

80,670 

996,677 

Columbia. 

Charleston  (50,000). 

Agriculture,  commerce. 

Georgia. 

69,475 

1,642,180 

AtlanU. 

Atlanta  (85,000). 

Raising  cotton  and  rice,  manufacturing,  commerce. 

.  Tloridm. 

68,680 

269,498 

Tallahassee. 

Key  West  (10,000). 

Raising  cotton  and  semi-tropical  fruits. 

48 


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SOUTH  CENTRAL  STATES. 


49 


SOUTH     CENTRAL     STATES, 


m^^^ 


MMV 


HIS  section  consists  mainly  of  the 
southern  part  of  the  Mississippi 
Valley  and  the  low  plains  border- 
ing on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  into 
which  most  of  the  rivers  flow. 

2.  The  States.  —  The  South 
Central  States  are  Alabama, 
Mississippi,  Louisiana,  Arkansas, 
and  Tennessee. 

Note.  —  Florida,  though  it  has  a  great 
extent  of  coast  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  has 
been  included  among  the  Atlantic  States. 
Texas,  though  in  \ait  a  South  Central 
State,  is,  for  convenience  of  mapping,  in- 
cluded among  the  "States  of  the  Plains." 


3.  Surface.  —  The  Appalachian  Mountain  system  is  continued 
intfl  the  northeastern  part  of  this  section,  and  the  western  part, 
in  Arkansas,  has  various  detached  ridges,  as  Pea  Ridge,  Boston 
Mountains,  etc. :  with  these  exceptions  the  surface  is  generally  level. 

4.  Coast  —  The  coast  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  like  that  of  the 
South  Atlantic  States,  is  bordered  by  low  sandy  islands,  between 
which  and  the  mainland  are  inlets  or  lagoons.  The  river-mouths 
are  mostly  obstmcted  by  sand-bars,  so  that  good  harbors  are  few. 

6.  Elver  System.  —  The  drainage  of  this  section  is  mainly  through 
the  mighty  Mississippi.  It  is  here  a  broad,  slow-moving  stream, 
and  discharges  itself  into  the  Gulf  by  various  channels.  The 
alluvial  deposits  brought  down  by  the  Mississippi  have  formed  the 
Delta,  which  occupies  a  large  part  of  the  State  of  Louisiana. 

The  principal  tributaries  which  the  Mississippi  here  receives  are 
the  Yazoo  and  Big  Black  from  the  east,  and  the  Wliite,  Arkansas, 
and  Red  Rivers  from  the  west. 

In  Florida,  Alabama,  Mississippi,  and  Louisiana  are  a  few  streams 
forming  a  Gulf  system,  independent  of  the  Mississippi  system.  > 

6.   Climate  and  Vegetation.  —  The  northern  part  has  a  warm-tem- 


perate climate,  and  the  States  bordering  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  have  a 
semi-tropical  climate.  Abundant  rains  fall  Magnolias  and  the 
cypress  with  pendent  moss  characterize  the  coast-belt ;  farther  in- 
land is  the  zone  of  the  pine;  this  is  succeeded  by  forests  of  oak  and 
the  deciduous  trees. 

7.  Besources.  —  The  soil  is  admirably  adapted  for  the  growth  of 
cotton  and  the  cereals,  and  in  the  southern  part,  of  sugar  and  semi- 
tropical  fruits.  The  forests  supply  ship-timber  and  naval  stores. 
Goal  and  iron,  copper  and  zinc,  salt,  marble,  and  gypsum,  are 
among  the  mineral  riches  of  this  section. 

8.  Industries.  —  The  fertile  soil,  abundant  moisture,  and  warm 
temperature  of  this  section  give  rise  to  its  great  industry,  agricul- 
ture. The  three  leading  staples  grown  are  cotton,  rice,  and  the 
sugar-cane.  Mining  and  manufacturing,  though  secondary  indus- 
tries, are  being  rapidly  developed.  The  labor  is  largely  carried 
on  by  the  colored  people,  who  number  about  three  millions. 

9.  Commerce.  —  These  States  have  a  large  domestic  trade,  while 
the  Mississijjpi  River  and  the  railroad  connections  with  the  At- 
lantic seaboard  are  the  channels  of  an  extensive  foreign  commerce. 
The  chief  exports  are  cotton,  rice,  sugar,  lumber,  and  naval  stores. 


D£LTA    OF    TH£    MISSISSIPPI. 


MAP  STUDIES  ON  THE  SOUTH  CENTRAL  STATES. 


Position.  —  1.  rietween  what  parallels  are  the  northern  boundaries  of  Tennessee 
and  Arkansas  ?  2.  What  parallel  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  ?  3.  What  States 
north  of  this  section  ?  4.  What  gulf  south  ?  6.  What  three  States  lie  between 
this  section  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean  ?    6.  What  State  and  Territory  on  the  west  ? 

Surface.  —  1.  Into  what  States  does  the  southern  extremity  of  the  Appalachian 
Mountain  system  extend  ?  2.  What  mountains  in  Arkansas  ?  3.  Which  part  of 
Tennessee  is  mountainous  ?  4.  In  which  two  States  are  there  no  mountains  ? 
5.  Which  State  has  numerous  lakes  ?    6.  Where  is  Lake  Pontchartrain  ? 

Coast  —  1.  What  three  States  of  this  section  border  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  ? 
2.  What  is  the  nature  of  the  coast  ?  3.  Locate  Chandeleur  Islands.  4.  What  four 
principal  bays  on  the  Qulf  of  Mexico  ?  6.  What  ocean  current  flows  eastward  through 
Florida  Strait  ?    An».  The  Gulf  Stream. 

Rivers.  —  1.  What  great  river  in  this  section  ?  2.  What  are  the  principal  trib- 
utaries which  the  Mississippi  receives  from  the  east  ?  —  from  the  west  ?  3.  Which 
four  of  the  States  in  this  section  border  on  the  Mississippi  ?  4.  What  is  the  nature 
of  the  coast  t  5.  Describe  the  course  of  the  Suwanee  ;  —  the  Chattahoochee  ;  —  the 
Elscambia  ;  --  the  Alabama  ;  —  the  Tombigby  ;  —  the  Pearl  ;  —  the  Sabine. 

Cities.  —  L  What  is  the  direction  of  New  Orleans  from  Cincinnati  ?  2.  What 
is  the  direction  of  Mobile  from  Charleston  ?  3.  What  two  Qulf  States  have  their 
capitals  in  the  same  latitude?  4.  What  large  Atlantic  city  is  in  nearly  the  same 
latitude  as  Montgomery  and  Jackson  ?  6.  How  would  steamers  laden  with  cotton 
go  from  Nashville  to  New  Orleans  ?  —  from  Little  Rock  to  New  Orleans  ? 

Thr  Statks.  —  (To  be  taken  in  connection  with  the  text  on  each  State.) 
I.   Alabama.  —  L  What  abbreviation  is  nsed  I    Ans.  Ala.     2.   Bound  Alabama. 


3.  Which  part  is  hilly  ?  4.  Into  what  body  of  water  do  most  of  its  rivers  flow? 
5.  What  river  traverses  the  northern  part  ?  6.  What  is  the  capital  of  Alabama ! 
7.   What  is  its  principal  seaport  ? 

IL  Mississippi.  —  1.  What  abbreviation  is  used  ?  Ans.  Miss.  2.  Bound  Mis- 
sissippi. 3.  What  great  river  on  the  west  ?  4.  What  two  States  on  the  opposite 
bank  of  the- Mississippi  ?  5.  Name  the  two  principal  tributaries  of  the  Mississippi 
in  this  State.  6.  Wliat  two  rivers  flow  into  Mississippi  Sound  ?  7.  In  what 
part  of  the  State  is  the  capital  ?    8.    Locate  Natchez  ;  —  Corinth  ;  —  Vicksburg. 

in.  IfOulsiana.  —  1.  What  abbreviation  is  used  ?  Aits.  La.  2.  Bound  Louisi- 
ana. 3.  What  great  river  fonns  a  partial  eastern  boundary  ?  4.  Which  part  of 
the  State  extends  to  the  east  of  the  Mississippi  ?  5.  Wliere  is  I^ake  Pontchartrain ! 
—  Grand  Lake  ?  6.  Name  the  three  principal  jiasses  at  the  mouth  of  the  Missis- 
sippi. 7.  AVhere  is  New  Orleans  ?  8.  WTiat  city  on  the  upper  course  of  the 
Red  River  ?    9.  Locate  Port  Hudson  ;  —  Baton  Rouge  ;  —  Alexandria. 

rV.  Arkansas.  —  1.  What  abbreviation  is  used  ?  Ans.  Ark.  2.  Bound  Arkan- 
sas. 3.  Which  part  of  the  State  is  mountainous  ?  4.  Name  the  three  chief  tribu- 
taries of  the  Mississippi  in  the  State.  6.  On  what  river  is  the  capital  I  6.  Locate 
Helena  ;  —  Arkansas  Post. 

V.  Tennessee.  —  1.  What  abbreviation  is  used  ?  Ant.  Tenn.  2.  Bound  Ten- 
nessee. 3.  What  great  river  forms  its  western  boundary  f  4.  Describe  the  ooune 
of  the  Cumberland  ;  —  of  the  Tennessee.  6.  What  two  mountain-ranges  in  the 
eastern  part?  6.  They  belong  to  what  mountain  system?  7.  Where  is  Nash- 
ville, the  capital  ?    8.  Locate  Memphis  ;  —  Chattanooga  ;  —  Knoxville. 


50 


THE  GULF   STATES. 


ALABAMA. 


COTTON   8HIPPINQ. 


L  Physical  Features.  —  Alabama  is  generally  level  except  in  the 
northern  part,  which  is  broken  or  mountainous. 

2.  Industries.  —  Cotton  is  the  great  staple,  and  Alabama  ranks 
as  one  of  four  leading  cotton-growing  States.  The  cotton  manu- 
facture is  carried  on  to  a  considerable  extent. 

3.  Cities.  —  Mobile,  the  largest  city,  is  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant ports  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Montgomery,  the  capital,  in 
the  central  part,  is  a  flourishing  commercial  and  railroad  city. 


MISSISSIPPI, 


OOTTON   PICKINQ. 


1.  Physical  Features.  —  The  surface  of  this  State  is  generally 
level,  and  much  of  the  south  and  west  is  low.  Along  the  Missis- 
sippi and  Yazoo  rivers  the  bottom-lands  are  subject  to  overflow, 
and  the  rich  cotton  plantations  are  protected  by  levees. 

2.  Industries.  • — ■  The  leading  industry  is  the  culture  of  cotton, 
in  which  Mississippi  ranks  as  the  foremost  State.  Great  quanti- 
ties of  com  and  sweet-potatoes  are  also  raised. 

3.  Cities.  —  Vicksburg  and  Natchez  are  the  principal  shipping 
points  on  the  Mississippi  River,  and  have  a  large  trade  in  cotton. 
Jackson,  the  capital,  is  a  small  city  on  thfe  Pearl  River. 


SPECIAL  GEOGRAPHY'  FOR   ALABAMA  CLASSES. 

^^■"  Alabama  classes  should  now  make  a  full  study  of  the  geography  of  their  State^  following  the 

Outline  on  page  30. 

Area,  52,250  square  miles.    Population  (census  of  1880),  1,262,505. 

Divisions.  —  The  State  may  be  divided  into  five  regions  :  (1)  the  timber 
region  ;  (2)  the  cotton  region  ;  (3)  the  agricultural  and  manufacturing  region  ; 
(4)  the  mineral  region  ;  (5)  the  stock  and  agricultural  region. 

The  timber  region  extends  across  the  southern  portion  of  the  State,  40  miles 
north  of  the  Florida  line.  This  section  is  covered  with  forests  of  yellow-pine 
which  yields  excellent  timber.     Tar,  pitch,  and  turpentine  are  largely  made. 

The  cotton  region  joins  the  timber  region  on  the  north  ;  it  has  a  width  of 
about  100  miles  on  the  western  line  of  the  State,  and  60  miles  on  the  eastern. 

The  agricultural  and  manufacturing  region  is  north  of  the  cotton  region,  and 
extends  across  the  State  with  a  width  of  about  35  miles.  The  streams  here 
afford  excellent  water-power. 

The  mineral  region  occupies  the  northeastern  comer  of  the  State,  extending 
southwest  about  160  miles  with  an  average  width  of  about  80  miles.  This 
district  abounds  in  coal,  iron,  plumbago,  marble,  limestone,  granite,  etc. 

The  stock  and  agricultural  region  occupies  the  northwestern  part. 

Industries.  —  Agriculture  forms  the  principal  occupation  of  the  people. 
The  chief  productions  are  cotton  and  Indian  com  ;  other  grains  and  the  sugar- 
cane, rice  and  tobacco,  are  also  produced. 

The  mining  interest  is  attracting  increased  attention,  and  the  large  deposits 
of  coal  and  iron  must  become  a  great  source  of  wealth  to  the  State. 

The  Tiwst  important  manufactures  are  those  of  cotton  and  cotton  goods, 
thread  and  yam,  iron,  leather,  and  lumber. 

Cities.  —  Selma  has  a  large  river  and  railroad  trade.  Himtsville  is  noted 
for  its  fine  climate  and  educational  facilities.  Opel'ika  is  an  important  railroad 
point.  Eufau'la  is  an  active  commercial  city.  Birmingham  has  extensive 
iron-works.  Tuscaloosa  is  the  seat  of  the  State  University,  Auburn  of  the 
State  Agricultural  College,  and  Greensboro  of  the  Southern  University. 

El^~  Locate  and  tell  something  about  the  following  places :  — 

Marion.  Tallade'ga.         Tuskegee'.  Greensboro.  Florence.  Wetnmp'ka. 

Greenville.        Demop'oHs.        Union  Springs.       Prattville.  Tuscumbia.       Grantville. 

La  Fayette.       Troy.  Jacksonville.  Deca'tur.  Uniontown. 


SPECIAL  OEOGRAPHT  FOR  MISSISSIPPI  CLASSES. 

53**  Mississippi  classes  should  now  make  a  full  study  of  the  geography  of  their  State,  following 

the  Outline  on  page  30. 

Area,  46,810  square  miles.    Population  (census  of  1880),  1,131,597. 

Outline.  —  In  fonn  Mississippi  is  oblong,  having  its  length  from  north 
to  south  about  twice  its  width.  Like  Alabama,  it  has  a  narrow  strip  of  land 
souT:h  of  the  main  body  of  the  State  and  extending  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

Surface.  —  In  its  greater  part  the  surface  is  level,  though  the  central  and 
northern  portions  are  undulating  and  covered  with  occasional  bluffs  and  ranges 
of  hills.  The  valleys  of  the  northern  and  central  section  are  exceedingly  fer- 
tile, and  the  region  between  the  Mississippi  and  the  Yazoo  is  the  most  produc- 
tive in  the  State.  The  southern  part,  generally  for  about  1(X)  miles  from  the 
Gulf,  is  mostly  a  sandy,  level  country,  covered  with  pine  forest,  interspersed 
with  cypress-swamps,  prairies,  and  marshes. 

River  System.  —  The  chief  river,  the  Mississippi,  washes  the  whole  west- 
ern border  of  the  State,  for  a  distance,  by  its  circuitous  course,  of  530  miles, 
but  in  a  straight  line  of  not  half  that  distance.  The  chief  tributaries  of  the 
great  river  in  this  State  are  tlie  Yazoo,  which  flows  into  the  Mississippi  12 
miles  above  Vicksburg,  and  the  Big  Black  (200  miles  long),  which  is  navi- 
gated by  steamboats  for  50  miles.  The  other  rivers  flow  southward  directly 
into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

Products.  —  Mississippi  is  almost  exclusively  an  agricultural  State.  The 
leading  crop,  cotton,  amount.'!  tu  about  a  million  of  bales  annually.  Horses, 
mules,  swine,  and  cattle  are  extensively  raised. 

Commerce.  —  The  natural  outlets  of  the  commercial  products  of  this  State 
are  New  Orleans  and  Mobile,  with  which  it  communicates  by  river  and  rail. 

Cities.  —  In  addition  to  the  cities  mentioned  in  the  main  text  the  following 
are  the  largest  places  :  —  Columbus,  the  chief  business  of  which  is  shipping 
cotton  to  Mobile  ;  Meridian,  a  railroad  center  ;  Oxford,  the  seat  of  the  State 
University  ;  Holly  Springs,  which  is  noted  for  its  superior  educational  insti- 
tutions ;  and  East  Pascagoula,  which  has  a  large  trade  in  lumber. 

tSff^  Locate  and  tell  something  about  the  following  towns  :  — 


Aberdeen. 
West  Point. 


Pass  Christian. 
Macon. 


Grena'da. 
Mississippi  City. 


Corinth. 
Water  Valley. 


Okolo'na. 
Pascagoula. 


LOUISIANA  AND   ARKANSAS. 


51 


LOUISIANA. 


L  Its  Bank. — Lou- 
is iaua  ranks  as  one  of 
the    most    important 

...  _  .:.IAT1QN, 

States,  not  only  on  ac- 
count of  its  staple  products,  but  commercially,  as  holding  the  out- 
let of  the  Mississippi  Valley. 

2.  Physical  Features.  —  The  surface  is  low,  generally  level,  and 
in  many  places  swampy ;  along  the  banks  of  the  Mississippi  and 
Red  rivers  the  plantations  are  protected  from  inundation  by  em- 
bankments, or  levees. 

3.  The  leading  industries  are  agriculture  and  commerce. 
Agriculture.  —  The  staple  products  are  the  sugar-cane,  cotton,  and  rice. 

The  State  produces  nine  tenths  of  all  the  sugar  raised  in  the  United  States, 
and  great  crops  of  cotton  and  rice. 

Commerce.  —  The  commercial  facilities  of  the  State  arise  from  its  situa- 
tion at  the  lower  extremity  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  on  the  coast  of  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico.  This  gives  it  the  control  both  of  the  foreign  and  the  domestic 
trade  of  this  rich  section. 

4.  Cities.  —  New  Orleans  is  the  largest  city  and  the  greatest 
cotton-market  in  the  Gulf  States.     Baton  Eouge  is  the  capital. 


SFECIAIi  OEOORAFH7  FOR  LOUISIANA   CI.ASSES. 

17*  Loulniaua  cksaes  should  DOW  make  a  full  study  of  the  geography  uf  their  State,  following 

the  Outline  on  page  30. 

Area,  48,720  sauare  miles.    Population  (census  of  1880),  039.046. 

Outline  and  Extent  —  Louisiana  has  an  irregular  outline.  Its  greatest 
length  eiist  and  west  is  about  300  miles  ;  its  greatest  width  north  and  south, 
240  miles. 

Sea-coaat.  —  Louisiana  has  a  coast-line  of  1,256  miles  on  the  Gulf. 

Surface.  —  The  surface  of  Louisiana  is  low  and  generally  level.  The  en- 
tire Delta  of  the  Mississippi,  comprising  one  fourth  of  the  area  of  the  State, 
is  seldom  elevated  more  than  ten  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  is  liable 
to  frequent  inundations  from  freshets  in  the  rivers.  A  great  part  of  the  Delta 
is  composed  of  sea-marsh,  which  is  subject  to  overflow  by  high  tides. 

North  of  the  Delta  are  vast  level  prairies,  which  are  slightly  elevated  above 
the  marsh-lands.  The  western  margin  of  the  Lower  Mississippi  is  also  a  low 
country,  intersected  by  many  small  rivers  and  bayous,  and  liable  to  overflow. 

In  the  west  and  north  is  an  extensive  region  comprising  one  half  the  State, 
which  is  somewhat  broken,  but  which  nowhere  exceeds  200  feet  in  elevation. 

Levees.  —  Below  Bato..  Rouge,  on  both  banKs,  and  on  the  west  bank 
throughout  the  State,  the  .vmtry  requires  to  be  protected  by  levees.  Occasion- 
ally they  give  way,  causing  great  damage  by  the  overflow.  An  example  of  this 
occurre<l  in  the  spring  of  1874,  when  in  consequence  of  crevasses  in  the  levees 
thirty-owe  parishes  were  submerged,  and  great  loss  and  sufleriiig  followed. 

Rivers.  —  Th«  principal  river  is  the  Mississippi,  which  forms  the  eastern 
boundary  in  the  northern  half  of  the  State.     It  is  here  a    deep,  broad,  water- 


couise,  with  many  windings,  and  in  this  State,  taking  its  "  bends  "  into  account, 
has  a  course  of  8(X)  miles.  The  waters  of  the  Missuisippi  find  their  way  into 
the  Gulf  through  numerous  mouths,  bayous,  and  lagoons,  and  discharge  im- 
mense quantities  of  se<liment,  brought  down  from  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

The  main  tributary  which  the  great  river  receives  in  this  State  is  the  Red 
River  (rising  in  the  Rocky  Mountains),  which  pours  its  waters,  swelled  by 
those  of  the  Ouachita',  into  the  Mississippi  nearly  at  the  31st  parallel. 

The  chief  rivers  not  tributary  to  the  Mississippi  are  the  Calcasieu  [kal'kor- 
shoo],  Bayou  Tiche,  and  Amite,  with  the  Pearl  and  Sabine,  boundary  streams. 

Climate.  —  The  climate  is  semi-tropical,  and  many  of  the  fruits  and  flowers 
of  the  Torrid  Zone,  such  as  the  orange,  fig,  pomegranate,  and  magnolia  grandi- 
flora,  flourish  in  perfection. 

Minerals.  —  The  State  is  not  rich  in  minerals.  It  may  be  noted,  however, 
that  in  Calcasieu  Parish  are  extensive  deposits  of  sulphur  and  gypsum,  and  that 
at  Petit  Anse  in  Iberia  Parish  there  is  a  mass  of  pure  rock-salt,  more  than  144 
acres  in  area,  and  of  unknown  depth.  It  was  discovered  during  the  war 
(1861-65),  and  is  now  largely  mined. 

Agriculture.  —  Louisiana  is  largely  an  agricultural  State.  The  sfAples, 
Ix-'sides  Intlian  corn  and  other  cereals  for  home  use,  are  cotton,  rice,  and  sugar. 

Cotton.  —  Cotton  is  largely  cultivated,  and  Louisiana  ranks  as  the  seventh 
State  in  the  production  of  this  important  article. 

Rice.  —  In  the  production  of  rice  this  State  ranks  high.  The  rice  is  grown 
in  the  alluvial  soil  along  the  Mississippi,  a  large  part  of  it  being  produced  in 
the  parish  of  Plaquemines  [plak'meeri]. 

Sugar.  —  This  State  is  the  only  part  of  our  country  that  produces  sugar  in 
large  quantities.  The  sugjir-cane  does  not  flourish  above  latitude  31°.  The 
culture  of  the  cane  in  Louisiana  began  about  the  middle  of  the  last  century. 
The  sugar  crop  in  1860  was  220,000  hogsheads,  but  is  now  less. 

Manufactures.  —  The  manufacturing  interest  is  not  large  or  diversified. 
The  principal  products  of  manufacture  are  sugar  and  molasses.  The  next 
most  important  articles  are  toljacco  and  cigars,  boots  and  shoes,  flour,  clothing, 
iron-castings,  and  machinery. 

Political  Divisions.  —  The  State  is  divided  into  Parishes  corresponding 
to  the  counties  of  other  States.  The  xxae  of  the  term  parish  is  derived  from  the 
early  French  inhabitants. 

History.  —  "  Louisiana,"  in  the  last  century,  was  the  name  applied  to  an 
extensive  territory  including  the  whole  country  westward  from  the  Missis- 
sippi not  occupied  by  Spain,  and  northward  to  the  southern  boundary  of 
British  America,  —  a  vast  region  then  in  possession  of  France.  In  the  year 
1803,  during  the  administration  of  Jefi'erson,  this  domain  was  purchased  from 
France  for  $  15,000,000  dollars.  The  State  of  Louisiana  was  organized  in 
1812,  and  all  the  rest  of  "  Louisiana"  took  the  name  of  "Missouri." 

Cities. — In  addition  to  New  Orleans  and  Baton  Rouge,  the  most  impor- 
tant place  is  Shreveport,  the  principal  cotton  city  in  the  Red  River  section. 
The  following  places  are  next  in  importance  :  Monroe,  a  cotton  point  on 
the  Ouachita  ;  Natchitoches  and  Alexandria,  on  Red  River  ;  Plaquemines 
and  Donaldsonville,  on  the  Mississipjn  ;  Franklin  and  St.  Martinsville, 
on  the  T4che  ;  Thibodeauville,  on  the  Lafourche ;  Opelou'sas,  on  the 
Courtableau  ;  and  Jackson,  in  the  Feliciana  region. 


ARKANSAS. 


1.  Physical  Features.  —  The  eastern  part  of  this  State,  bordering 
on  the  Mississippi,  is  low,  level,  and  swampy ;  in  the  interior  it 
becomes  hilly,  and  in  the  west  it  rises  into  a  mountain  region. 

2.  Industries.  —  The  staple  farm  products  are  cotton  and  com ; 
stock-raising  is  extensive,  and  the  mineral  resources  are  great 

3.  CapitaL — Little  Rock  is  the  capital  and  largest  city. 

For  Arkansas  Classes.— I.  Area,  58,860  square  miles;  population,  by  the 
census  of  1880,  802,525.  II.  The  chief  produoto  are,  in  the  north,  wheat,  com, 
oats,  potatoes,  hemp,  butter,  apples,  and  live-stock  ;  in  the  south,  timber,  com, 
cotton,  tobacco,  rice,  sweet-potatoes,  honey,  and  beeswax.  The  cotton  crop  amounts 
to  about  600,000  bales  a  year.  III.  Tlie  minerals  in  the  Ozark  Mountain  region 
are  coal,  iron,  zinc,  and  lead.  The  oil-stone  of  the  Ouachita  mineral -spring  region 
is  the  best  in  the  world.  In  the  Ouachita  valley,  about  60  miles  from  Little  Rock, 
there  are  many  hot  springs,  remarkable  for  their  high  temperature,  which  varies 
from  100°  to  150°.  IV.  The  following  are,  next  to  Little  Rock,  the  most  popu- 
lous places  :  Fort  Smith,  Pine  Bluff,  Camden,  Hot  Springs,  Van  Buren,  Fayetteville, 
Arkadelphia,  Dardanelle,  Searcy,  and  Batesville. 


52 


SOUTH   CENTRAL  STATES. 


TENNESSEE. 


L  Physical  Features.  —  This  State  is  divided  into  three  sections, 
—  East  Tennessee,  Middle  Tennessee,  and  West  Tennessee. 

2.  The  leading  industries  are  (1)  mining  and  grazing  in  the  East- 
em  Mountain  section ;  (2)  the  raising  of  cotton,  corn,  wheat,  and 
live-stock  in  the  Middle  section ;  and  (3)  the  production  of  cotton 
and  tobacco  in  the  Western  section. 

3.  Cities.  —  Memphis,  an  important  city,  is  the  principal  cotton 
and  grain  market  between  St.  Louis  and  New  Orleans. 

Nashville,  a  fine  city  on  the  Cumberland  Eiver,  is  the  capi- 
tal, and   the  chief  market  for  Middle  Tennessee. 


SPECIAL  GZ:OGRAPH7  FOR  TENITESSEE   CLASSES. 

^^  Tennessee  classes  should  now  make  a  full  study  of  the  geography  of  their  State,  following  the 

Outline  on  page  30. 

Area,  42,050  square  miles.    Population  (census  of  1880),  1,542,359. 

Situation  and  Extent.  —  Tennessee  by  its  geographical  position  forms  the 
middle  ground  between  the  North  Central  and  the  Gulf  States.  Its  greatest 
length  from  east  to  west  is  about  430  miles  ;  its  breadth  is  about  110  miles. 

Surface.  — •  The  whole  of  the  State  belongs  to  the  Mississippi  Valley,  but 
it  is  usually  divided  into  three  sections,  —  East  Tennessee,  or  the  part  east 
of  the  Cumberland  Mountains  ;  Middle  Tennessee,  which  lies  between  these 
mountains  and  the  Tennessee  River  ;  and  West  Tennessee,  which  extends  from 
the  Tennessee  River  to  the  Mississippi. 

East  Tennessee  is  a  mountain-valley  region  about  100  miles  in  width.  This 
region  is  intersected  by  numerous  parallel  ridges,  bearing  various  local  names. 
Middle  Tennessee  is  moderately  hUly.  West  Tennessee  is  either  level  or  gently 
undulating. 


River  System.  —  Noble  rivers  open  to  navigation,  and  streams  furnishing 
water-power,  mark  this  State.  The  Mississippi  forms  the  western  boundary 
for  160  miles,  and  into  this  great  reservoir  flow  ultimately  all  the  waters  of 
the  State. 

The  Cumberland  has  a  course  in  this  State  of  150  miles,  and  is  navigable  to 
Carthage. 

The  Tennessee,  formed  by  the  union  of  the  Clinch  and  Holston,  after  leaving 
this  State  and  flowing  through  the  northern  part  of  Alabama,  re-enters  the 
western  part,  takes  a  northerly  course  through  its  whole  breadth,  and,  passing 
into  Kentucky,  joins  the  Ohio  at  Paducah.  It  is  navigable  from  its  mouth 
up  to  Florence,  Alabama,  at  the  foot  of  Muscle  Shoals. 

Minerals.  —  In  mineral  resources  Tennessee  is  exceedingly  rich.  The  State 
has  over  5,000  square  miles  of  coal,  and  28  counties  filled  with  inexhaustible 
beds  of  iron-ore.  The  iron  and  coal  interests  are  rapidly  growing.  Copper  and 
salt  are  abundant,  and  nitrous  earth,  from  which  saltpeter  is  obtained,  is  found 
in  many  places.  The  marbles  of  Tennessee  are  esteemed  for  their  beauty  and 
variety. 

Agriculture  is  the  most  important  industry  in  this  State.  Middle  and  West 
Tennessee  have  a  highly  productive  soil,  and  the  valleys  in  East  Tennessee  are 
very  fertile. 

The  great  staples  are  wheat,  corn,  cotton,  hemp,  and  tobacco.  In  the  pro- 
duction of  the  last-named  article  it  ranked  as  the  fifth  State  in  1880. 

Stock-raising,  including  horses,  mules,  cattle,  and  hogs,  is  largely  carried  on. 

Manufactures.  —  The  manufacturing  industries  are  more  developed  than  in 
any  other  of  the  South  Central  States.  There  are  many  cotton-mills,  woolen- 
mills,  manufactories  of  machinery,  hardware,  and  other  metallic  ware,  tobacco 
factories,  potteries,  paper-mills,  etc. 

The  value  of  manufactured  articles  is  over  $  50,000,000  a  year. 

Commerce.  —  An  extensive  internal  trade  is  carried  on  through  the  rivers 
and  railroads  of  the  State.  Two  great  outlets  for  the  cotton  of  the  State  are 
New  Orleans,  via  Memphis  and  the  Mississippi  River,  and  by  railroad  to  Nor- 
folk, Va. 

Education. — Tennessee  is  distinguished  for  the  number  of  its  colleges  and 
private  institutions.  The  city  of  Nashville  alone  has  four  colleges  and  uni- 
versities, viz. :  the  University  of  Nashville,  Vanderbilt  University,  Fisk  Uni- 
versity, and  Central  Tennessee  College.  A  State  University,  with  which  is 
connected  the  State  Agricultural  College,  is  at  KnoxviUe. 

Historical.  —  Tliis  State  derives  its  name  from  the  Tennessee  River,  signi- 
fying the  "  river  of  the  great  bend."  In  colonial  times  it  formed  part  of  the 
territory  of  North  Carolina,  having  been  settled  by  emigrants  from  that  colony 
in  1757.  After  the  Revolution  it  was  ceded  to  the  General  Government  and 
formed  part  of  the  "  Southwest  Territory."  It  was  admitted  into  the  Union 
in  1796,  being  the  sixteenth  State. 

Cities.  —  Next  to  Memphis,  the  metropolis,  and  NfishviUe,  the  capital,  the 
most  important  places  are :  — 


Karnes. 


Knoxville. 
Chattanooga. 

Jackson. 
Hurfreesboro. 

Clarksville. 
Columbia. 


Advantages  of  Location. 


On  Holston  River. 

On  Tennessee  River  in  southern  part 

of  State.  Coal  and  iron  fields. 
Fertile  region  in  West  Tennessee. 
On  Stone  River. 

On  Cumberland  River. 
On  Duck  River. 


Industries  and  Characteristics. 


Trading  center  for  East  Tennessee. 
Important  iron  works.     Railroad  and 

trading  center. 
Local  trade. 
Important  trade,  especially  in  cotton 

and  grain. 
Trading  center  in  Middle  Tennessee. 
Local  trade.    Educational  center. 


State  the  location  of  the  following  additional  places,  and  anything  known  regarding 
each  :  — 

Brovmsville.  Lebanon.  Shelbyville.  Franklin. 

Gallatin.  Trenton.  Cleveland.  Fayetteville. 


TOPICAL   REVIEW   OF   THE   SOUTH    CENTRAL   STATES. 




Names. 

Area. 

Population, 
by  Census  of  m 

Capitals. 

Chief  city,  and  Population  (in  ronnd 
numbers)  by  Census  of  1880. 

Indnstrial  Pursuits. 

Alabama. 

Missiisippi. 

Lonisiana. 

Arkansas. 

Tennessee. 

sq.  miles. 
52,250 

46,810 

48,720 

63,860 

42,050 

1,262,508 

1,131,597 

939,946 

802,525 

1,542,359 

Montgomery. 
Jackson. 
Baton  Rouge. 
Little  Rock. 
Nashville. 

Mobile  (32,000). 
Vicksburg  (12,000). 
New  Orleans  (216,000). 
Little  Rock  (13,000). 
Nashville  (44,000). 

Culture  of  cotton  and  grain  ;  lumbering,  mining. 

Culture  of  cotton  and  grain  ;  stock-raising. 

Culture  of  sugar,  cotton,  and  rice  ;  commerce. 

Culture  of  cotton  and  grain  ;  pasturage. 

Culture  of  cotton,  tobacco,  and  grain  ;  mining,  manufacturing. 

THE  NORTH   CENTRAL   STATES. 


53 


THE     NORTH     CENTRAL     STATES. 


VI  v^^-i^vi 


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INTRODUCTION. 

L  The  States.  —  The  North  Central  States  comprise  the  "  Lake 
States"  and  the  States  of  the  "Upper  Mississippi  Valley," — in  all, 
nine  States. 

The  Iiake  States  are  :  Michigan,  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  and  Wisconsin.     For 
coiiveiiit'iic«  of  inapi>inj;,  Kentucky  is  united  with  this  group. 
The  Upper  Mississippi  States  are  :  Minnesota,  Iowa,  and  Missouri. 

2.  Situation.  —  This  section  lies  in  the  same  latitude  as  the  New 
England  and  Middle  States,  its  northern  part  in  Minnesota  (49th 
parallel)  e.xtending  somewhat  farther  north  than  Maine,  and  its  most 
southern  part  (the  southern  boundary  of  Missouri  and  Kentucky) 
being  on  the  same  parallel  as  the  southern  boundary  of  Virginia. 

3.  Size.  —  The  North  Central  States  include  about  one  seventh 
of  the  area  and  one  third  of  the  population  of  our  country. 

4.  The  surface  as  a  whole  is  but  little  elevated  above  the  sea, 
and  is  either  level  or  undulating ;  still,  the  section  presents  certain 
mountains,  plateaus,  and  slopes. 

5.  Mountains.  —  The  Cumberland  Mountains,  the  most  western 
range  of  the  Appalachian  Mountain  system,  form  the  boundary 
between  Virginia  and  Kentucky. 

The  Height  of  Zand,  which  forms  the  watershed  between  the 
Mississippi  Basin  and  the  northern  slope  of  the  Central  Plain  of 
North  America,  traverses  Northern  Minnesota.  The  highlands  of 
Northern  Wisconsin  and  the  Upper  Peninsula  of  Michigan  are  an 
extension  of  the  Height  of  Land. 

The  Ozark  Mountains,  consisting  of  groups  and  knobs  of  high- 
lands rather  than  mountains,  occupy  Southern  Missouri 

6.  Plateaus  and  Slopes.  —  The  western  slope  and  foothill  region 
of  the  Appalachian  Mountain  system  form  a  plateau,  or  tsible-land, 
of  moderate  elevation,  extending  through  Eastern  Kentucky,  nearly 
the  whole  of  Ohio,  and  the  southeastern  part  of  Indiana.  The 
general  slope  is  toward  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  rivers. 

The  plateau  region  of  Northern  Wisconsin  and  the  Upper  Pen- 
insula of  Michigan  has  a  slope  toward  the  south  and  east.  The 
States  bordering  the  Mississippi  slope  toward  that  river,  and  have 
also  a  general  slope  toward  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

7.  Lakes.  —  Four  of  the  five  Great  Lakes,  namely,  Erie,  Huron, 

Michigan,  and  Superior,  are  situated  in  the  northern  part  of  this 

section. 

Note. — Lake  Snperior  is  six  hundred  feet  above  the  sea-level,  and  has  an  area  of 
thirty-two  thousand  square  miles, —  a  surface  equal  to  that  of  the  whole  of  the  State 
of  Maine  or  the  island  of  Ireland.  I,ake  Michigan,  about  fifty  feet  lower  than  Ijike 
Superior,  is  three  fourths  as  large.    Lake  Huron  is  two  thirds  as  large  as  Lake  Superior. 


Lake  Erie  is  ono  third  as  large  as  Lake  Superior,  and  is  very  shallow,  Lieing  less  than 
one  hundred  feet  deep. 

8.  Rivers.  —  The  principal  rivers  of  this  section  belong  to  the 

Mississippi  system. 

The  Mississippi  proper  rises  in  Lake  Itasca  in  Minnesota.  This  lake  is 
1,575  feet  above  the  sea-level.  The  great  river  has  uninterrupted  navigation 
from  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony  through  this  entire  section,  and  southward  to 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  a  distance  of  3,136  miles. 

Chief  Tributaries.  —  Two  of  the  tributaries  of  the  Mississippi  are  of  such 
length  and  volume  as  to  deserve  the  name  of  constituents  rather  than  tribu- 
taries. These  are  :  1.  The  Missouri,  which  receives  numerous  affluents,  has  a 
length  of  3,000  miles,  and  is  navigable  to  the  base  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
2.  The  Ohio,  which  is  navigable  to  Pittsburgh,  a  distance  of  nearly  1,000  miles. 

Several  rivers  of  this  section  belong  to  the  basin  of  the  St. 
Lawrence  and  Great  Lakes.  They  are  comparatively  short,  and  are 
valuable  rather  for  mill-uses  than  for  navigation. 

9.  Resourcea  —  This  favored  region  is  rich  in  natural  advan- 
tages. The  chief  of  these  are  a  generally  fertile  soil,  great  deposits 
of  the  most  valuable  minerals,  extensive  forests,  and  ready  means  of 
commercial  communication. 

Soil.  —  The  broad  and  fertile  prairies,  admirably  adapted  both  for  tillage 
and  grazing,  form  the  granary  of  our  country. 

Minerals.  —  Coal  is  very  widely  distributed  throughout  this  section,  and  is 
in  inexhaustible  quantities.  Iron  is  extensively  found,  especially  in  Missouri 
and  Michigan.  The  Lake  Superior  copper-mines  are  the  richest  in  the  world. 
Most  of  the  lead  produced  in  the  United  States  is  obtained  from  the  lead- 
mines  of  Iowa,  Illinois,  Wisconsin,  and  Missouri. 

Forests.  —  This  section  is  well  timbered  ;  the  northern  States  contain 
great  forests  of  white-pine  ;  the  hanl  woo<ls,  also,  are  plentiful  in  many  parts. 

The  means  of  communication  afforJcd  by  nature  are  the  numerous  large 
navigable  streams,  especially  the  Slississippi  and  its  tributaries,  which  give 
comiimnication  with  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  the  Great  Lakes,  which,  with 
the  St.  Lawrence,  give  communication  with  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 

10.  Industries. — Agriculture  and  grazing,  manufacturing,  mining, 
and  lumbering,  are  the  leading  industries  in  this  section. 

11  Commerce.  —  These  States  export  immense  quantities  of 
wheat,  flour,  corn,  pork,  bacon,  beef,  cheese,  salt,  wool,  copper, 
lead,  and  lumber.  The  splendid  commercial  facilities  with  which 
nature  has  endowed  this  section  are  further  increased  by  a  net- 
work of  railroads,  built  by  the  enterprise  of  the  Western  people. 

12.  History.  —  With  the  exception  of  Kentucky,  all  the  States  of 
this  section  east  of  the  Mississippi  originally  formed  parts  of  the 
"Northwest  Territory,"  organized  in  1787.  The  States  of  this  sec- 
tion lying  west  of  the  Mississippi  were  included  in  Louisiana, 
which  was  purchased  from  France  in  1803. 

Nora.  —  For  tbe  data  of  the  admlHion  of  each  State  Into  the  Union,  ne  Special  Oeography. 


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KENTUCKY.  —  MAP  STUDIES  ON  THE  NORTH  CENTRAL  STATES. 


MAP  STUDIES  ON  THE  NORTH  CENTRAL  STATES. 


Position.  —  1.  What  parallel  on  the  southern  boundary  of  Kentucky  and  Mis- 
souri ?  2.  What  parallel  separates  Minnesota  from  Canada  ?  3.  What  natural 
boundary  on  the  north  ?  4.  What  States  border  on  Lake  Superior  ?  5.  What 
State  occupies  two  peninsulas  ?  6.  What  States  border  on  Lake  Michigan  ?  7.  What 
States  border  on  Lake  Erie '!  8.  Kame  the  States  of  this  section  on  each  side  of  the 
Mississippi ;  —  on  each  side  of  the  Ohio.  9.  Which  are  the  two  most  southerly 
States  ?     10.  What  three  States  form  the  northern  tier  ? 

Snrfiace.  —  1.  Into  what  part  of  this  section  do  the  Alleghany  Mountains  extend  ? 
2.  What  mountain-range  in  Missouri  ?  3.  Where  is  Pilot  Knob  ?  4.  What  part  of 
Michigan  is  mountainous  ?    5.  What  is  the  Height  of  Land! 

Rivers.  —  1.  Describe  the  course  of  the  Mississippi  River.  2.  What  great  tribu- 
tary does  it  receive  from  the  west  ?    3.  What  are  its  principal  eastern  tributaries  ? 

4.  Describe  the  course  of  the  Ohio  River,  —  of  the  Illinois,  —  of  the  Wisconsin. 

5.  What  river  between  Indiana  and  Illinois  ?  —  between  Kentucky  and  West  Virginia  ? 

6.  What  two  great  tributaries  does  the  Ohio  receive  from  the  south  ?     7.  What 
river  between  Minnesota  and  Dakota  ?    What  river  between  Iowa  and  Nebraska  ? 

Lakes.  —  1.  How  is  Lake  Superior  connected  vrith  Lake  Huron?  2.  How  are 
Lakes  Michigan  and  Huron  connected  ?  3.  What  rivers  connect  Lake  Huron  and 
Lake  Erie  ?  4.  What  lake  is  between  them  ?  6.  Which  State  contains  many  small 
lakes  ?    6.  Name  some  of  the  lakes  of  Minnesota,     7.  Where  is  Lake  Winnebago  ? 

States  and  Cities.  — (To  be  taken  in  connection  with  the  text  on  each  State.) 
I.  Kentucky.  —  1.  What    mountains    and    river    form    its   ea.stem    boundary  ? 

2.  What  river  on  the  north  ?  —  on  the  west  ?  3.  Where  is  its  capital  ?  4.  Locate 
Louisville.     6.  AVhat  is  the  abbreviation  for  Kentucky  ?    Ans.  Ky. 

IL  Ohio.  — 1.  Bound  this  State.  2.  What  are  the  chief  tributaries  of  the  Ohio 
River  ?  3.  What  rivers  flow  into  Lake  Erie  ?  4.  What  is  the  capital  ?  5.  Locate 
Cincinnati.  6.  What  cities  on  the  shore  of  Lake  &ie  ?  7.  What  is  the  abbre- 
viation for  Ohio?    Ana.  O. 

in.  Indiana.  —  1.  Bound  this  State?    2.  What  boundary  river  on  the  south? 

3.  In  what  direction  do  the  large  rivers  flow  ?  4.  On  what  lake  has  this  State  a 
water-front  ?  6.  What  and  where  ia  the  capital  ?  6.  What  is  the  abbreviation 
for  Indiana  ?    Ana.  Ind. 


IV.  Michigan.  —  1.  On  what  lakes  docs  Michigan  border  ?  2.  In  what  direction 
does  the  northern  peninsula  extend  ?  —  the  southern  ?  3.  What  bays  in  the  south- 
ern peninsula  ?  4.  Has  this  State  any  large  rivers  ?  6.  What  is  the  capital  ? 
6.  Where  is  Detroit  ?    7.  What  is  the  abbreviation  for  Michigan  ?    Ans.  Mich. 

V.  Illinois.  —  1.  What  natural  boundary  haa  this  State  on  the  west  ?  2.  What 
river  and  lake  form  a  partial  eastern  boundary  ?  3.  Name  the  chief  tributaries  of 
the  Mississippi  in  this  State.  4.  What  is  the  capital  ?  5.  Where  is  Chicago  f 
6.  What  is  the  abbreviation  for  Illinois  ?    Ans.  lU. 

VI.  Wisconsin.  —  1.  Bound  Wisconsin.  2.  Docs  this  State  extend  as  far  north 
as  Minnesota  ?    3.  In  what  direction  and  into  what  do  the  principal  rivers  flow  ? 

4.  What  is  the  capital  ?    6.  Where  is  Milwaukee  ?    6.  AVhat  is  the  abbreviation 

for   Wisconsin  ?    Ana.  Wis. 

VII.  Slissouri  —  1.  Bound  this  State.  2.  AVhich  part  is  mountainous  ?  3.  What 
great  river  traverses  it  from  northwest  to  southeast  ?    4.  What  ia  the  capital  ? 

5.  Where  is  St.  Louis  ?    6.  What  is  the  abbreviation  for  Missouri  ?    Ans.  Mo. 

Vin.  lov^a  —  1.  Bound  this  State.  2.  What  are  the  principal  tributaries  of  the 
Mississippi  ?  .3.  What  two  rivers  form  the  western  boundary  ?  4.  What  is  the 
capital  ?  5.  Name  four  cities  on  the  Mississippi.  6.  AVhat  is  the  abbreviation 
for  lotva  ?    Ans.  Ia. 

IX.  Minnesota.  —  1.  AVhat  parallel  north  ?  2.  AVhat  lakes  form  a  partial  north- 
em  boundary  ?  3.  Name  four  lakes  in  the  State.  4.  AA'here  does  the  Mississippi 
rise  ?  5.  Where  is  St.  Paul  ?  —  Minneapolis  ?  6.  AVhat  is  the  abbreviation  for 
Minnesota?    Ans.  Minn. 

Commercial  Communications.  —  1.  Upon  what  bodies  of  water  would  a 
vessel  sail  in  going  from  Chicago  to  Cleveland  ?  2.  AVhat  water-highway  for  ship- 
ping grain  is  there  between  Detroit  and  Buffalo  ?  3.  How  might  copper  be  shipped 
by  water  from  the  copper  region  in  Northern  Michigan  to  Chicago  ?  4.  How  would 
pork  and  bacon  be  sent  by  steamer  from  Cincinnati  to  Cairo  ?  5.  By  or  between 
what  States  would  a  raft  float  from  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony  to  Memphis,  Tenn.  ? 
6.  How  would  you  sail  from  Jeflerson  City  to  Cairo  ?  7.  By  what  water-route  wotdd 
bales  of  furs  laden  in  a  steamer  at  Sioux  City,  Iowa,  reach  St.  Louis  ? 


KENTUCKY. 

L  Physical  Features.  —  In  surface  this  State  is  mountainous  in 
the  southeast,  hilly  in  the  middle  part,  and  an  iindulating  plain 
in  the  west.  The  Ohio  River  flows  along  its  whole  northern,  and 
the  Mississippi  along  its  western  border. 

2.  The  leading  industries  are  (1)  agricultiire,  the  chief  crops 
being  wheat,  corn,  flax,  hemp,  and  tobacco ;  (2)  the  raising  of 
fine  breeds  of  horses,  cattle,  hogs,  and  sheep ;  (3)  the  manufactur- 
ing of  flour,  sawed  lumber,  and  prepared  tobacco. 

3.  Cities.  —  Louisville  is  the  commercial  emporium  of  the 
State.  It  has  tobacco-warehouses  and  pork-packing  establish- 
ments, and  carries  on  active  commerce.     Frankfort  is  the  capital 


BFZSCIAI.  OEOORAFHT  FOR  KZOTTUCKT  CLASSES. 

O^  Kentucky  classea  should  now  make  a  full  study  of  the  geography  of  their  State,  fallowing  the 

Outline  on  page  30. 
Area,  40,400  square  miles.    Population  (census  of  1880),  1,648,690. 

Outline  and  Extent.  —  In  form  this  State  ia  irregular.  Its  greatest  length 
east  and  west  is  350  miles  ;  its  greatest  breadth,  178  miles. 

Surface.  —  The  southeast  is  broken  by  the  Cumberland  Mountains  and 
their  offshoots  :  average  height,  2,000  feet ;  highest  summits,  about  3,000  feet. 

North  and  west  of  the  hill  country  is  an  upland  r^on  (from  the  Big  Sandy 
River  to  longitude  86°  West),  occupying  more  than  half  the  whole  area  of  the 
State.  This  is  included  in  the  blue  limestone  fonnation,  and  is  called  the 
"  Blue  Grass"  region,  —  the  most  fertile  part  of  Kentucky.  The  western  part 
has  a  generally  level  surface,  diversified  by  "  oak  knobs."  A  range  of  hills 
extends  parallel  with  the  Ohio. 

Rivers.  —  Kentucky  is  abundantly  provided  with  noble  streams. 

The  Mississippi  fonns  its  western  limit  for  80  miles. 

The  Ohio  gives  it  steamboat  navigation  for  more  than  600  miles. 

Most  of  the  rivers  of  the  State  flow  into  the  Ohio.  The  most  important  ore : 
The  Big  Sandy,  navigable  for  only  a  short  distance  ;  the  Licking,  the  mouth  of 
which  is  opposite  Cincinnati ;  the  Kentucky,  navigated  by  steamboats  80  miles  ; 
Green  River,  navigable  for  steamboats  to  Greensburg,  200  miles  ;  the  Cimiber- 
land,  navigable  to  Nashville,  Tetm. ;  and  the  Tennessee  River. 


Agriculture.  —  Tobacco  is  the  most  valuable  protluct.  The  annual  yield 
is  one  third  the  whole  amount  produced  in  the  United  States. 

Of  hemp  and  flax  this  State  raises  two  thirds  of  all  that  is  grown  in  the 
country.     It  also  produces  great  crops  of  corn,  oats,  wheat,  and  rye. 

In  stock-raising  it  ranks  as  one  of  the  leading  States,  not  only  on  account  of 
its  great  numbers  of  horses,  mules,  cattle,  sheep,  and  hogs,  but  on  accoimt  of 
the  excellence  of  the  breeds. 

Minerals.  —  Coal  abounds  in  the  State.  Iron  ores  of  a  very  superior  quality 
are  found,  and  numerous  iron-furnaces  ai-e  in  operation  in  the  northeastern  part. 

The  hydraulic  limestone  abounds,  and  ia  largely  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
cements.  Limestones  are  also  extensively  found  in  caves ;  the  most  famous 
of  these  is  the  Mammoth  Cave,  the  largest  in  the  world. 

Manufactures.  —  The  principal  manufactures  (ranked  in  the  order  of  the 
value  of  products)  are  flouring  and  grist  mill  products,  distilled  liquors,  sawed 
lumber,  forged,  rolled,  and  pig  iron,  castings,  bagging,  and  prepared  tobacco. 

Commerce.  —  The  domestic  commerce  of  the  State  is  large.  The  principal 
exports  are  hemp,  flax,  tobacco,  horses,  mules,  hogs,  cattle,  bagging,  and  rope. 

Education.  —  There  are  in  the  State  nearly  5,000  public  schools,  attended 
by  over  200,000  pupils.     Kentucky  haa  42  colleges. 

History.  —  Kentucky  was  the  second  State  admitted  under  the  Federal  Con- 
stitution. It  came  into  the  Union  in  1792.  The  name  of  the  State  signifies 
"  the  dark  and  bloody  ground  "  {kan-luck-kee). 

Cities.  —  In  addition  to  Louisville  and  the  capital  the  leading  cities  are  :  — 


Names. 

Advantages  of  Location. 

Indnstries  and  Characteristics. 

Covington. ) 
Newport.    J 
Lexington. 

Fadn'oah. 

MsyiTille. 

Henderson. 

Connection  with  Cincinnati  by 
8usi>enslon  bridges. 

Center  of  tlie  "Blue  Grass"  re- 
gion. 

Confluence  of  the  Tennessee  with 
the  Ohio. 

On  the  Ohio  River. 

On  the  Ohio  Blver. 

Iron-works.     Hanubcture  of  cotton  and  hemp. 

Great  pork  and  l>eef  packing  establishments. 
The  most  important  inland  city.    Manufacture 

of  bagging,  rope,  etc 
Chief  mart  for  trade  of  the  western  section. 

Center  of  large  local  tradr  Manufacture  of 
bagging,  rope,  and  agricultuAl  implements. 

Manufacture  of  prepared  tobacco,  wagons,  car- 
riages, cars,  whiskey,  etc.    Large  local  trade. 

Kf  Locate  and  state  something  about  the  following  additional  place* :  - 


Owensboro. 
HopldiuvlUe. 


Paris. 
Franklin. 


Hanodsborg. 
BoonaaboroQgh. 


56 


THE   NORTH   CENTEAL   STATES. 


OHIO. 

1.  Its  Rank.  —  Ohio  is  one  of 
the  wealthiest  and  most  progres- 
sive of  the  North  Central  States, 
and  ranks  in  population  as  the 
third  State  in  the  Union. 

2.  Physical  Features. — The  State 
as  a  whole  forms  a  part  of  the 
western  slope  of  the  AUeghanies, 
and  hence  has  a  surface  more 
elevated  than  that  of  the  prairie 
States  to  the  west.  It  has  direct 
water  communication  with  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  by  means  of  Lake 
Erie  on  its  northern  border,  and 
with  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  by  the 
Ohio  Eiver,  which  flows  along  the 
southeastern  and  southern  border. 

3.  Resources.  —  The   natural 
wealth  of  the  State  is  very  great, 
comprising  vast  deposits  of  coal  and  iron,  extensive  forests,  a 
tile  soil,  and  the  finest  means  of  commercial  communication. 


fer- 


4.  The  leading  industries  are  (1) 

agriculture,  comprising  the  culti- 
vation of  the  principal  food-crops, 
with  wool,  flax,  and  tobacco,  and 
also  the  raising  of  horses,  cattle, 
sheep,  and  hogs ;  (2)  coal  and 
iron  mining,  carried  on  in  the 
eastern  and  southern  parts,  along 
the  Ohio  Eiver;  and  (3)  manu- 
facturing, of  which  the  most 
important  products  are  agricul- 
tural implements,  flour,  furniture, 
sawed  lumber,  whiskey,  leather, 
and  iron-work. 

5.  Cities.- — Cincinnati,  the  me- 
tropolis, a  great  manufacturing 
and  commercial  point  on  the  Ohio 
Eiver,  is  one  of  the  most  beauti- 
ful and  prosperous  interior  cities 
in  the  Union. 

Columbus,  the  capital,  is  large- 
ly engaged  in  manufacturing,  for  which  it  has  fine  advantages 
owing  to  its  nearness  to  the  coal-fields. 


STREET    SCENE   IN    CINCINNATI 


SPECIAL  GEOGRAPHY  FOR  OHIO   CLASSES. 

^^  Ohio  classes  should  now  make  a  full  study  of  the  geography  of  their  State,  following  the 
Outline  on  page  30.    Refer  to  the  County  map,  page  58. 

Area,  41,060  square  miles.    Population  (census  of  1880),  3,198,062. 

Outline  and  Extent.  —  In  outline  this  State  approaches  a  square,  its  de- 
parture from  a  regular  square  being  due  to  the  fact  that  it  has  the  natural 
boundaries  of  Lake  Erie  on  the  north  and  the  Ohio  River  on  the  southeast 
and  south.     Its  greatest  length  is  220,  and  its  greatest  breadth  2(K)  miles. 

Surface.  —  As  a  whole,  the  State  is  a  table-land,  which  in  its  middle  belt  is 
about  1,000  feet,  and  on  the  northern  and  southern  borders  from  600  to  800 
feet,  above  the  sea-level. 

Though  the  surface  is  diversified,  it  nowhere  presents  any  considerable  ele- 
vations above  the  general  level.  A  ridge  of  highlands  north  of  the  middle  of 
the  State  forms  the  watershed  that  divides  the  short  streams  flowing  north- 
ward into  Lake  Erie  from  the  rivers  flowing  into  the  Ohio  River. 

The  general  slope  toward  the  Ohio  River  is  interrupted  by  a  subordinate 
ridge  which  crosses  the  State  in  the  latitude  of  Zanesville  and  Columbus,  and 
between  which  and  the  Ohio  the  surface  is  diversified  with  hill  and  dale. 

River  System.  —  The  Ohio  River,  entering  the  State  from  Pennsylvania 
near  the  middle  of  the  eastern  boundary,  flows  along  the  whole  of  the  south- 
ea.stem  and  southern  border,  a  distance  of  over  500  miles. 

Its  principal  tributaries  are  the  Musking'um,  Hocking,  Scio'to,  Little  Mia'mi, 
and  Miami,  or  Big  Miami,  rivers. 

Of  the  rivers  of  the  northern  slope  flowing  into  Lake  Erie  the  most  important 
are  the  Maumee',  the  Sandusky,  and  the  Cuyahog'a. 

Sdinerals.  —  Lying,  as  Eastern  Ohio  does,  contiguous  to  the  rich  coal-fields 
and  iron-mines  of  Western  Pennsylvania,  it  shares  this  mineral  wealth. 

The  coal  of  Ohio  is  bituminous,  and  the  product  of  its  coal-mines  is  second 
only  to  that  of  Pennsylvania. 

In  the  value  of  its  iron  products  (pig-iron,  rolled  and  forged  iron)  it  also 
ranks  next  to  that  State. 

The  State  contains  numerous  salt-springs  and  oil-weUs,  and  there  are  many 
quarries  of  fine  building-stone. 

Poreat  Products.  —  The  extensive  forests  of  hard- woods  comprise  maple, 
oak,  ash,  walnut,  hickory,  etc.  They  furnish  great  quantities  of  most  valuable 
lumber  used  in  the  manufacture  of  furniture  and  agricultural  implements. 

Agriculture.  —  The  agricultural  interest  is  very  large.  Great  crops  of 
wheat,  com,  oats,  barley,  hay,  potatoes,  and  orchard  and  garden  products  are 
raised.  The  State  produces  large  quantities  of  flax.  In  the  culture  of  tobacco 
it  ranks  fourth.  The  grape  is  extensively  cultivated  along  the  Ohio  River  and 
on  the  shores  and  islands  of  Lake  Erie. 


Live-Stock.  —  In  live-stock  it  is  one  of  the  leading  States,  having  fine 
breeds  of  horses,  cattle,  hogs,  and  sheep.  It  is  the  foremost  State  in  sheep- 
raising,  and  produces  more  than  20,000,000  pounds  of  wool  a  year.  Immense 
quantities  of  pork,  hams,  bacon,  and  lard  are  made  for  home  use  and  export. 

Manufactures.  —  In  the  value  of  its  manufactured  articles  it  ranks  as  the 
fourth  State  in  the  Union  and  as  the  first  of  the  Western  States.  The  annual 
value  of  its  manufactured  products  is  about  $  300,000,000. 

The  most  important  articles  are  flouring-mill  products,  agricultural  imple- 
ments, clothing,  packed  pork,  sawed  lumber,  distilled  and  malt  liquors,  wine, 
furniture,  carriages  and  wagons,  leather,  boots  and  shoes,  woolen  goods,  ma- 
chinery, and  prepared  tobacco. 

Commerce.  —  No  interior  State  in  the  Union  has  finer  commercial  ad- 
vantages than  Ohio.  Lake  Erie  and  the  Ohio  River  furnish  great  natural 
highways,  and  these  are  supplemented  by  numerous  canals  and  railroads. 

Cities.  —  Besides  Cincinnati  and  Columbus  the  largest  cities  are  :  — 


Names. 

Advantages  of  Localitjr. 

Indnstries  and  Characteristica. 

Cleveland. 
Toledo. 

Dayton. 
Sandusky. 

Spring^eld. 
Hamilton. 

PoTtsmoutb. 
Zanesville. 

Akron. 
Chillicoth'e. 

On  Lake  Erie. 

On  the  Maumee  River,  three  miles 
from  the  west  end  of  Lake  Erie. 

Pine  water-power  from  Mad  River. 
Canal  and  railroad  facilities. 

Sandusky  Bay,  Lake  Erie. 

Railroad  center. 

On  the  Miami  River,  25  miles  from 
Cincinnati. 

On  the  Ohio  River.  Southern  ter- 
minus of  Ohio  and  Erie  Canal. 

On  the  Muskingum  River,  in  a 
rich  mineral  region. 

On  the  Ohio  and  Erie  Canal,  and 

Little  Cuyahoga  River. 
In  the  rich  Scioto  valley. 

Great  lake  trade.  Extensive  iron-works,  oil- 
refineries,  and  manufactories  of  agricultural 
implements. 

Great  com  and  grain  mart.  Extensive  trade 
in  pine  and  bhick-walnut  lumber.  Manu- 
facture of  wagons,  bent-work,  furniture, 
agricultural  implements,  etc. 

Iron-mills,  m.achine-shops,  linseed-oil  mills, 
car-factories,  and  manufactories  of  agricul- 
tural implements. 

Distributing  point  for  lumber.  Great  fish- 
market  of  the  State.  Manufacture  of  wheels 
and  tool-handles,  hme,  lumber,  and  gypsum. 

Manufacture  of  agricultural  implements  and 
water-wheels. 

Manufacture  of  woolen  goods,  paper,  agricul- 
tural implements,  machinery,  and  tools. 

Iron  and  coal  in  the  vicinity.  Iron-works. 
Canal  and  river  trade. 

Manufacture  of  iron,  steam-engines,  stoves, 
agricultural  implements,  glass-ware,  stone- 
ware, paper,  etc. 

Iron-works.  Manufacturing  of  agricultural 
implements. 

Agricultural  trade. 

Additional  Places. —  The  following  additional  places  had  each  from  5,000  to  10,000  popu- 
lation by  the  census  of  1S70  :  — 
Stenbenville.   Canton.   Youngstown.    Mansfield.     Xenia      Kewark.      Piq'ua     Pomeroy. 
Massillon.         TifBn.       CircleviUe.        Marietta.      Ironton.   Wooster.      Fremont. 

J^"  Pupils  may  state  the  location  of  each  ;  also  anything  known  regarding  their  industries. 


INDIANA. 


67 


INDIANA. 


INDIANA  SCENES, 


1  Physical  Features.  —  Indiana,  in  the  heart  of  the  Great  West, 
has  a  generally  level  surface,  the  southeastern  part  being  undulat- 
ing, and  the  only  elevations  of  any  note  the  "river-hills"  along 
the  Ohio  and  other  streams. 

2.  The  natural  advantages  of  the  State  consist  in  its  fertile  soil, 
its  extensive  deposits  of  coal  and  iron,  and  the  facilities  for  com- 
munication afforded  by  its  rivers. 

3.  Industries.  —  The  prosperity  of  the  Stat«  is  based  on  its  agri- 
cultural, mining,  and  manufacturing  interests.  Immense  crops  of 
wheat,  com,  oats,  potatoes,  and  fruit  are  produced,  and  cattle, 
sheep,  and  hogs  are  raised  in  great  numbers. 

4.  The  Capital — Ixdianap'olis,  the  capital  and  largest  city,  is 
the  center  of  numerous  railroads,  and  is  an  active  manufacturing 
and  commercial  point. 


8PECIAX.  GEOGRAFHT  FOR  QiTDIAKA  CLASSES. 

^^  Indiana  cUssei  shoiild  nov  make  a  full  etndy  of  the  geography  of  their  State,  following  the 
Outline  on  page  80.     Refer  to  County  map,  page  58. 

Area,  36,350  square  miles.    Population  (census  of  1880),  1,078,301. 

Outline  and  Kztent — In  form  this  State  is  an  irregular  oblong.  Its 
length  from  north  to  south  is  nearly  twice  its  breadth  from  east  to  west,  its 
extreme  length  being  276  miles  and  its  extreme  breadth  176  miles. 

Buzface. — With  the  exception  of  river-hills  and  isolated  knobs,  the  surface 
is  a  level  or  rolling  plain.  The  absence  of  any  marked  watershed  is  a  sin- 
gular physical  feature  ;  still,  the  country  has  continuous  slopes  of  great  extent, 
and  the  difference  in  elevation  between  the  highest  land  and  the  Ohio  River 
at  the  falls  is  nearly  600  feet  The  river-hills  inclose  bottom-lands,  which 
have  a  rich  alluvial  soil,  and  are  generally  well  wooded.  Behind  these  stretches 
a  low  table-land  prasenting  various  forms  of  landscape,  —  here  extensive  groves 
and  there  broad  prairies. 

River  System. —  The  Ohio,  the  final  reservoir  of  the  principal  watercourses 
of  the  State,  flows  along  the  whole  southern  boundary  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Miami  to  that  of  the  Wabash,  a  distance  by  the  river's  course  of  380  miles. 

The  IVabash^  forming  a  part  of  the  western  boundary  of  the  State,  is  the 
chief  tributary  of  the  Ohio.  Its  principal  branches  are  the  Salamonie',  Mis- 
sissin'ewa.  Wildcat,  Sugar  (or  Bock),  Bacoon,  White,  and  Pato'ka  from  the 


south  and  east ;  and  from  the  north  and  west  the  Little  Wabash  and  Embar'- 
ras,  in  Illinois,  the  Vermilion  in  both  States,  and  in  Indiana  the  Tippecanoe', 
Eel,  and  Little  rivers.  The  Whitewater  joins  the  Miami  six  miles  above  its 
entrance  into  the  Ohio. 

The  rivers  of  the  northern  section  are  the  St.  Joseph  and  St  Mary,  forming 
the  Maumee,  another  St.  Joseph  falling  into  Lake  Michigan,  and  the  Kan- 
kakee' and  Iroquois,  which  are  the  principil  branches  of  the  Illinois  River. 

Lakes.  —  This  State  has  at  the  northwest  a  water-front  on  Lake  Michigan. 
Niunerous  small  lakes  are  situated  north  of  the  Wabash  River. 

Agrlculttire.  —  Indiana  is  a  rich  agricultural  State.  It  holds  a  high  rank 
in  growing  wheat  and  com,  and  it  produces  great  quantities  of  oats,  potatoes, 
and  tobacco.  Its  fine  pasturage  supports  immense  numbers  of  cattle,  sheep, 
and  horses,  and  millions  of  hogs  are  fattened  on  the  great  corn-crops. 

rorest-Products.  —  Although  a  considerable  part  of  the  surface  of  this 
State  is  prairie-land,  yet  it  is  rich  in  forests  of  hard-woods,  such  as  the  oak, 
beech,  ash,  maple,  hickory,  walnut^  black-locust,  etc.,  which  furnish  great 
quantities  of  valuable  lumber. 

Minerals.  —  The  most  valuable  mineral  found  in  the  State  is  bituminous 
coal,  which  exists  in  great  abundance.  The  beds  form  port  of  the  great  coal- 
field which  extends  through  Illinois,  Indiana,  and  Kentucky.  The  mineral 
interest  is  of  great  and  increasing  importance. 

Manufactures.  —  The  manufacturing  industries  in  this  State  are  large  and 
varied.  The  chief  manufactured  articles  are  flouring-mill  products,  sawed  lum- 
ber, woolen  goods,  carriages  and  wagons,  agricultural  implements,  iron-cast- 
ings, distilled  liquor,  and  packed  pork.  The  annual  value  of  these  jjroducts  ia 
over  $100,000,000. 

Commerce.  —  Indiana  has  no  direct  foreign  commerce,  but  it  has  a  vast 
domestic  trade  by  means  of  its  navigable  waters  and  it^  grand  system  of  rail- 
roads and  canals.  Its  geographical  position  is  such  that  the  whole  land- 
commerce  between  the  manufacturing  States  of  the  east  and  the  country  west 
of  the  Mississippi  must  pass  through  its  territory. 

Education.  —  This  State  has  a  flourishing  common-school  system,  an  ad- 
mirable State  Normal  School  at  Terre  Haute  [ter'ry-hiit],  and  numerous  col- 
leges, academies,  and  private  schools.  The  public  schools  are  attended  by 
nearly  half  a  million  of  pupils.  The  State  University,  at  Bloomington, 
and  Purdue  University  are  free  in  all  departments  to  both  sexes. 

History.  —  Previous  to  the  French  and  Indian  War  this  whole  country 
formed  a  part  of  New  France,  and  200  years  ago  a  considerable  number  of 
French  settlers  located  here,  leaving  their  memorials  in  such  names  as  Vin- 
cennes,  Terre  Haute,  etc.  In  1800,  when  the  State  of  Ohio  was  carved  out 
of  this  Territory,  the  rest  of  the  extensive  region  received  the  name  of  "  In- 
diana Territory."  In  1809  Indiana  was  reduced  to  its  present  limits,  and 
in  1816  it  was  admitted  as  a  State. 

Cities.  —  In  addition  to  Indianapolis  the  most  important  cities  are  :  — 


Names. 


Evanaville. 
Fort  Wayne. 
Terre  Haute. 

Hew  Albany, 
Lafayette. 

liOgauiport. 

Hadison. 

Bichmond. 

JeffiBrsonville 

South  Bend. 
La  Forte. 

Vinoennes. 


Advantages  of  Locality. 


On  the  Ohio  River,  at  terminus 
of  Wabash  and  Erie  Canal 

Confluence  of  St  Uoiy  and  St 
Joseph  rivers. 

Railroad  center. 


On  the  Ohio  Biver. 


On  the  Wabaah  River. 


Jnnctlon  of  Eel  River  vltb  the 

Wabash. 
On  the  Ohio  River. 

Gaat-central  part  of  the  State. 

On  Ohio  River,  Jnat  above  the 

hlhL 
On  St.  Joseph  River. 
Proximity  to  Lake  Michigan. 

On  the  Wabash  River.    Rich  agri- 
cnltaral  and  coal  regloa 


Industries  and  Characteristics. 


Large  rirer  trade.  Manufacture  of  Hour,  iron, 
beer,  etc. 

Hanofacturea  in  baid-wood,  machinery,  agri- 
cultural implements,  furniture,  bncliets,  etc. 

Manufacture  of  iron,  hominy,  whislcey,  and 
beer.  Great  porli-marliet  Seat  of  State 
Normal  School. 

Extensive  river-tnulo.  Building  of  steam- 
boats. Manufacture  of  iron,  engines,  flour, 
glass,  etc. 

Large  grain-trade  and  pork-pocking.  Manu- 
facture of  flour,  woolen  goods,  ornamental 
iron-ware,  beer,  etc    Purdue  University. 

Large  grain-trade.  Manufocture  of  lumber, 
cars,  hubs  and  spokes,  etc. 

Varied  manufactures,— furniture,  leather,  wag- 
ons, wood-work,  saddle-trees,  starch,  eta 

Manufacture  of  agricultural  implements,  car. 
riages,  etc.    Trading-point 

Carbuilding  and  ship-bulldlng.  Trade  and 
manufactures.  [chines,  eta 

Trade.    Manufacture  of  wagons,  sewing-ma- 

Manufacture  of  agricultural  implements,  flour, 
lumber,  iron-castings,  eta     Ice-cutting. 

Agricultum    Manufacturing. 


^  State  the  location  of  the  following  additional  cities,  and  any  fitcta  known  respecting  each:— 
Pern.  Wabaah.  Franklin.  Rising  Sun. 

OreencasUa  Mount  Vernon.  ConnersviUs.  Colambia  City. 


Goshen. 
Lawrenoabari} 


SholbyviUe. 
Valparaisa 


Sejrmonr. 
KandaUviUa 


Flymonth. 


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155 V_ 


MICHIGAN. 


59 


MICHIGAN. 

L  Natural  Divisions.  —  Michi- 
giui  comprises  two  peninsulas, — 
the  Lower,  lying  between  Lake 
Michigan  on  the  west  and  lakes 
Huron,  St.  Clair,  and  Erie  on 
the  east;  and  the  Upper,  lying 
between  Lake  Superior  on  the 
north,  and  lakes  Michigan  and 
Huron  on  the  south. 

2.  The  physical  features  of  each 
are  as  follows  :  The  Upper  Pen- 
insula is  rugged  and  in  parts 
mountainous,  with  a  generally 
sterile  soil,  but  it  is  valuable  on 
account  of  its  rich  veins  of  cop- 
per and  iron  and  its  heavy  pine 
forests.     The   Lower  Peninsula 


UNIVERSITY   OF    MlCHlQAN,    ANO    PICTURCD  HOOKS. 


has  a   generally   level    siuface, 
a  fine  climate,  and  a  fertile  soiL 

3.  The  leading  industries  are 
(1)  lumbering,  favored  by  the  ex- 
tensive forests ;  (2)  farming,  fruit- 
raising,  and  manufacturing  in  the 
Lower  Peninsula;  and  (3)  mining 
the  rich  copper  and  iron  ores. 

4.  Cities.  —  Detroit  (pop. 
116,000)  has  the  best  harbor  on 
the  Gi-eat  Lakes,  and  is  exten- 
sively engaged  in  manufactur- 
ing and  in  foreign  and  domestic 
commerce.  The  river-ftx)nt  for 
over  six  miles  is  lined  with  mills, 
dry-docks,  ship-yards,  founderies, 
grain-elevators,  etc.  lANSmo 
is  the  capital 


SFECIAIi  GEOORAFH'X'  FOR  AnCHIGAN  CLASSES. 

HT"  Michigan  classes  shoold  now  make  a  fall  study  of  the  geography  of  their  State,  followmg  the 
Outline  on  page  30.     Refer  to  County  map,  on  the  opposite  page. 

Area,  58,915  square  miles.    Population  (census  of  1880),  1,636,037. 

Outline  and  Extent.  —  Michigan,  having  mainly  a  water-line  boundary, 
and  being  divided  into  two  peninsulas  hemmed  in  by  lakes,  is  exceedingly 

irregular  in  outline. 

The  Lower  Peninsula  has  its 
greatest  extent  from  north  to 
south,  about  283  miles  ;  its  great- 
est breadth  is  210  miles.  The 
Upper  Peninsula  has  its  great- 
est extent  from  east  to  west, 
about  320  miles ;  its  greatest 
breadth  is  130  miles. 

Surface.  —  The  Upper  Pen- 
insula is  a  wild,  rugged,  and 
mountainous  region.    The  Wis- 

^ consin,  or  Porcupine  Mountains, 

-5^  _^rS*^BBiii2H  ^K^  ij iSUrMrTlfcll  which  form  the  watershed  that 

separates  the  streams  flowing  into 
Lake  Superior  from  those  flow- 
ing into  Lake  Michigan,  reach  an 
elevation  of  about  2,000  feet  in 
the  northwestern  part. 

The  Lower  Peninsula  is  main- 
ly an  extensive  undulating  plain, 
though  it  rises  into  hills  in  the  central  and  northern  parts.  The  watershed 
separating  the  streams  flowing  into  lakes  Huron  and  Erie  from  those  flowing 
into  Lake  Michi<,'au  is  about  1,000  feet  above  the  sea-level. 

Lakes  and  Islands.  —  Michigan  well  deserves  its  title,  the  "  Lake  State," 
surrounded  as  it  is  by  the  largest  bodies  of  fresh  water  on  the  globe. 

or  A  B«riM  of  detailed  laap  qnestioiu  on  the  lakes  should  hers  be  given  by  the 
teacher. 

In  addition  to  the  Great  Lakes  there  are  in  the  interior  of  the  State  many 
smaller  picturesque  sheets  of  water,  the  sources  of  numerous  rivers. 

Several  small  islands  belong  to  Michigan.  The  most  important  are  Isle 
Royale,  in  Lake  Superior,  and  Mackinaw,  Beaver,  Bois  Blanc,  and  Drum- 
moiid  islands,  in  or  near  the  Strait  of  Mackinaw. 

Natural  Cariosity.  —  On  the  southern  shore  of  Lake  Superior  there  is  a 
line  of  about  twelve  miles  of  sandstone  bluffs  rising  to  a  height  of  300  feet, 
which  have  been  wrought  by  the  action  of  the  winds  and  waves  into  fantastic 
forms  of  castles,  temples,  pillars,  etc.    These  are  known  as  the  Pictured  Rocks. 

Rivers.  —  The  principal  streams  of  the  southern  ])eninHula  are  :  — 

Flowing  into  Lake  Huron:  the  Au  Sable  and  Sag'inaw.  Saginaw  River, 
formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Tittabawas'see,  Cass,  Flint,  and  Shiawas'see  rivers, 
is  a  large  stream  navigable  for  all  except  the  very  largest  lake  vessels ;  the 


•     I  *^— 


tributaries  which  unite  to  form  it  aff'ord  a  great  extent  of  river  navigation, 
valuable  for  the  flotage  of  logs  and  lumber. 

Flowing  into  Lake  Erie :  the  Huron  and  Raisin  rivers. 

Flowing  into  Lake  Michigan :  the  St.  Joseph,  Kalamazoo',  Grand,  Muske'gon, 
and  Manistee'  rivers.  These  have  courses  of  from  200  to  300  miles,  are  navi- 
gable for  30  to  40  miles,  and  furnish  valuable  water-power. 

In  tlie  Upper  Peninsula  the  streams  have,  from  the  nature  of  the  surface, 
short  and  rapid  courses. 

Climate.  —  The  influence  of  the  Great  Lakes  causes  the  climate  to  be  milder 
than  that  of  the  adjoining  States  in  the  same  latitude.  The  prevailing  wind 
of  Southern  Michigan  (the  west  and  southwest),  being  tempered  in  passing 
over  Lake  Michigan,  gives  the  western  part  of  the  State  a  temperature  from 
eight  to  ten  degrees  warmer  than  that  of  Wisconsin,  on  the  opposite  side. 

Minerals.  —  The  copper  region  along  the  shores  of  Lake  Superior  is  one  of 
the  richest  known,  and  the  mines  are  extensively  worked.  Depotits  of  coal  and 
iron  of  great  value  are  also  found.  The  salt-beds  of  the  Saginaw  valley  produce 
immense  quantities  of  salt.    Gypsum  is  found  in  Grand  River  valley. 

Lumbering.  —  Extensive  forests  overspread  the  Upper  and  large  parts  of 
the  Lower  Peninsula,  aff'ording  vast  supplies  of  lumber.  In  the  production 
of  sawed  lumber  this  State  exceeds  any  other  in  the  Union,  the  annual  value 
being  over  $30,000,000. 

Fisheries.  —  The  fisheries  form  one  of  the  secondary  yet  important  sources 
of  wealth  in  this  favored  State.  White-fish  and  Mackinaw  trout  are  taken  in 
large  quantities  for  home  use  and  export. 

Agriculture.  —  The  soil,  except  in  the  rugged  regions  and  some  parts  on 
the  eastern  side  of  the  Lower  Peninsula,  is  generally  fertile.  It  yields  large 
crops  of  wheat,  corn,  oats,  hay,  and  potatoes.  Great  quantities  of  butter,  cheese, 
and  wool  are  produced. 

Fruit-raising  is  extensively  followed  in  the  "  fruit  belt "  of  the  Lower  Pen- 
insula. The  peaches  and  apples  are  of  superior  quality,  and  the  valne  of  the 
orchard-products  exceeds  that  of  New  Jersey  or  California. 

Manufactures.  —  In  its  manufactures  this  State  ranks  high,  the  annual 
value  exceeding  $  100,000,000. 

The  leading  articles  of  manufacture  are  sawed  lumber,  wood-work  of  all 
kinds,  flour,  milled  and  smelted  copper,  iron,  salt,  clothing,  leather,  boots  and 
shoes,  furniture,  woolen  goods,  and  malt  liquors. 

Commerce.  —  Though  an  inland  State,  Michigan  has  the  finest  commercial 
facilities  in  the  possession  of  1,000  miles  of  lake-shore.  These  natural  high- 
ways are  supplemented  by  an  extensive  system  of  railroads. 

The  chief  exports  are  lumber,  wheat,  flour,  dairy-products,  orchard-products, 
live-stock,  wool,  copper,  and  salt. 

Education.  —  This  State  early  established  a  system  of  public  schools,  which 
has  since  been  carried  to  a  high  degree  of  excellence  and  efliciency.  It  has 
also  several  colleges,  and  a  State  Normal  School  at  Ypsilan'ti.  The  University 
of  Michigan  at  Aim  Arbor  is  the  largest  and  most  distinguished  of  the  Western 
universities  :  it  has  over  1,200  students,  and  is  open  to  both  sexes.  The  State 
Agrimiltural  College  and  State  Refonn  School  are  near  Lansing. 

History.  —  Michigan  formed  a  part  of  the  Northwest  Tcrritoiy.    It  was 


THE  NOKTH   CENTRAL   STATES, 


Special  Geography  of  Mich,  oontinned.] 

made  into  a  separate  Territory  as  early  as  1805,  but  it  did  not  become  a 
State  until  1837. 
Cities.  —  In  addition  to  Detroit  and  the  capital  the  most  important  cities 


Names. 


Grand  Bapids. 


East  Saginaw. 
Saginaw  City. 

Jackson. 


Bay  City. 
Kalamazoo 

(village). 

Adrian. 


Muskegon. 

Fort  Huron. 
Flint 

Ann  Arbor. 

Monroe. 

Battle  Creek. 

Marquette. 

Ypsilanti. 


Advantages  of  Location. 


Head  of  navigation  on  Grand 
River,  30  miles  from  Lake 
Michigan.    Water-power. 

On  opposite  sides  of  Saginaw 
River,  15  miles  from  its 
mouth. 

Railroad  center  in  the  southern 
part  of  the  State. 

On  Saginaw  Bay.  Excellent 
harbor. 

On  Kalamazoo  River.  Water- 
power. 

Fertile  {firming  region. 


Fine  harbor  on  Muskegon  Lake, 
near  Lake  Michigan. 

On  Lake  Huron. 

On  Flint  River.    Water-power. 

On  Huron  Elver.  Water-power 

On  Raisin  River,  near  Lake 
Erie. 

On  Kalamazoo  River.  Water- 
power. 


Large    and     varied     wood-manufactures. 

P'ounderies,  flouring-niills.    Manufacture 

of  brushes,  gypsum,  etc. 
Extensive  salt-works  and  lumber-mills. 


On  Lake  Snperioi. 


On  Huron  River.  Water-power. 


Industries  and  Cliaracteristics. 


Extensive  trade  and  considerable  manufac- 
turing. Mining  of  coal  and  lire-clay.  Seat 
of  State  Prison. 

Manufacture  of  lumber  and  of  all  kinds  of 
wooden-ware.    Salt  manufacture. 

Large  trade.  Extensive  and  varied  manU' 
factures.  Seat  of  Kalamazoo  College 
and  Michigan  Female  College. 

Large  traffic  in  produce,  fruit,  etc.  Brass- 
foundery  and  paper-mills.  Seat  of  Adrian 
College. 

Immense  manufacture  of  pine  lumber. 
Also  of  machinery  and  saws. 

Large  lumber  manufacture  and  trade. 
Saw-mills,    flouring-mills,    etc.      Seat   of 

Asylum  for  Deaf,  Dumb,  and  Blind. 
Local  trade  and   manufactures.    Seat  of 

State  University. 
Important  wheat  mart.    Varied  manufac- 
tures.   Seat  of  Female  College. 
Manufacture  of   agricultural   implements 

and  flour.     Seat  of  the  College  of  the 

Advent  denomination. 
Shipping  port  for  the  iron  region.     Iron 

manufacture.    Quarries  of  freestone  and 

slate. 
Manufacture  of  woolen  goods,  iron,  flour, 

etc.    Seat  of  State  Normal  School. 


Additional  Places.  —  The  following  additional  cities  and  towns  liad  each  from  3,000  to  6,000 
population  by  census  of  1874  :  — 

Islipeming.  Maraliall.  Niles.  Grand  Haven. 

Coldwater.  Alpena.  Negaunee.  Hillsdale. 

Pontiac  St.  Joseph.  Ionia.  Wyandotte. 

Big  Rapids. 

$S^  Pupils  may  state  the  location  of  each,  also  anything  known  regarding  their  industries. 


ILLINOIS. 

L  Its  Eank.  —  Illinois  ranks  as  one  of  the  most  populous, 
wealthy,  and  enterprising  of  the  Western  States,  being  splendidly 
situated  in  the  heart  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  and  commanding 
the  trade  both  of  the  Mississippi  Eiver  and  of  the  Great  Lakes. 
In  population  it  is  the  fourth  State  in  the  Union. 

2.  Physical  Features.  —  The  surface  is  generally  level,  consisting 
either  of  prairie-land  or  of  a  gently  undulating  plain.  The  State 
has  three  great  rivers,  —  the  Mississippi,  Ohio,  and  Wabash,  —  as 
partial  boundaries,  and  its  northeast  part  borders  on  Lake  Michigan. 

3.  Industries.  —  Agriculture  forms  the  basis  of  the  prosperity  of 
this  State  :  in  the  production  of  the  great  breadstuffs,  wheat  and 
com,  it  surpasses  every  other  State,  and  in  stock-raising  it  ranks 
among  the  first.  It  has  rich  lead  and  coal  mines.  In  manufac- 
tures it  ranks  next  to  Missouri. 

4.  Cities. — Chicago  is  the  commercial  metropolis,  and  the  largest 
city  on  the  northern  lakes.  It  has  an  extensive  lake  commerce,, 
is  the  center  of  the  railroad  system  of  the  surrounding  States,  and 
ranks  as  the  greatest  wheat,  com,  and  live-stock  market  in  the 
Union. 

Springfield,  the  capital,  has  a  large  trade  in  live-stock,  and  has 
steam  flour-miUs,  founderies,  and  machine-shops. 


SFISCIAI.   GEOGRAFHT   FOR   ILLINOIS    CLASSES. 

Illinois  classes  should  here  make  a  full  study  of  the  geography  of  their  State,  following  the 
Outline  on  page  30.    Refer  to  the  County  map,  pages  62,  63. 

Area,  56,650  square  miles.     Population  (census  of  1880),  3,077,871. 

Outline  and  Eztent.  —  In  form  Illinois  is  of  irregular  outline,  owing 
to  the  winding  course  of  its  boundary  rivers,  the  Wabash,  Ohio,  and  Missis- 
sippi. Its  extreme  length  from  north  to  south  is  385  mUes  ;  its  extreme  width 
from  east  to  west,  218  miles. 

Surface.  —  From  both  shores  of  Lake  Michigan  the  surface  of  the  Upper 
Mississippi  and  Lake  region  forms  an  inclined  plane,  which  extends  in  a  south- 
westerly direction  through  Indiana  and  Illinois.  The  State  of  Illinois  occu- 
pies the  lower  part  of  this  inclined  plane,  down  which  the  principal  rivers  of 


ILLINOIS. 


61 


Special  Geography  of  Illiaois,  oontmned. 

the  State  flow.  The  lowest  part  of  the  plane  is  the  extreme  southern  angle 
of  the  State.  Here  the  surface  is  only  340  feet  above  the  level  of  the  Qulf  of 
Mexico.     The  greatest  elevation  of  the  State  is  about  1,150  feet. 

A  small  tract  in  the  northwest  comer  of  the  State  is  hilly,  and  the  river- 
banks  present  bluffs  and  elevations  ranging  from  100  to  400  feet  high  ;  but  by 
far  the  greatest  portion  of  the  surface  consists  of  vast  level  or  gently  undu- 
lating prairies. 

Rivers.  —  The  unbroken  surface  of  Illinois  affords  a  drainage  extending 
from  the  borders  of  Lake  Michigan  toward  the  west  and  southwest  across  the 
entire  State. 

The  boundary  rivers  are  :  on  the  west  the  Mississippi,  on  the  south  the  Ohio, 
on  the  east  the  Wabash.  Into  these  rivers  flow  most  of  the  numerous  streams 
of  the  State. 

The  chief  riven  within  the  State  are  the  Kaskas'kia,  Illinois,  and  Rock,  tribu- 
taries of  the  Mississippi ;  the  Little  Wabash  and  Embar'ras,  tributaries  of  the 
Wabash  ;  and  the  Saline  and  Cash,  tributaries  of  the  Ohio. 

Flowing  into  Lake  Michigan  the  only  considerable  stream  is  the  Chicago 
River,  which  is  important  as  furnishing  a  harbor  for  the  great  commercial  city 
of  Chicago.  The  South  Branch  of  the  Chicago  River  is  connected  with  the 
navigable  Illinois  at  Lasalle  by  the  Illinois  and  Michigan  Canal,  96  miles 
lonj;. 

Mlnerala.  —  The  State  has  extensive  deposits  of  bituminous  coal.  The  coal- 
fields occupy  most  of  the  country  lying  south  of  a  line  traced  from  the  mouth 
of  Rock  Rive?  east  to  Lasalle  County,  and  thence  southeast  into  Indiana. 

Coal  is  mined  extensivsly  at  Rock  Island,  Lasalle,  Streator,  Wilmington, 
Duquoin,  Belleville,  and  Mt  Carbon,  while  numerous  other  points  produce 
coal  in  sufficient  quantities  to  supply  the  locnl  demaud. 

Lead  is  one  of  the  important  items  of  mineral  wealth.  This  metal  is  found 
in  the  northwest  comer  of  the  State,  which  includes  a  portion  of  the  great 
lead-1x;aring  belt  of  Wisconsin  and  Iowa. 

Salt  is  obtained  in  large  quantities  in  the  southern  section. 

Agriculture.  —  Illinois  is  in  the  front  rank  of  agricultural  States. 

The  princifHil  grains  are  wheat,  corn,  and  oats.  Of  all  these,  according  tc 
the  census  of  1880,  it  produces  more  than  any  other  State.  Other  farm  prod- 
uct-s  largely  raised  are  barley,  flax,  rye,  hay,  and  potatoes. 

In  live-stock  it  was  at  the  same  time  surpassed  only  by  New  York. 

Its  fruit-pnxlucts  and  orchard-products  are  of  great  value. 

Manufactures.  —  In  the  value  of  its  manufactured  articles  this  State 
ranks  as  the  sixth  in  the  Union.  The  value  of  its  manufactures  in  1870 
amounted  to  $  200,000,000. 

Leading  articles  are  :  the  products  of  butchering,  distilled  liquors,  planed 
lumber,  packetl  pork  :  in  the  product  of  these  Illinois  ranks  first.  More  than 
one  third  of  all  the  pork  packed  in  the  United  States  is  contributed  by  Illinois. 

Other  important  manufactures  are  :  agricultural  implements,  carriages  and 
wagons,  sadlery  and  harness,  wood-work,  woolen  goods,  clothing,  leather,  and 
boots  and  shoes. 

Commerce.  —  This  State  has  splendid  natural  facilities  for  commerce  in  its 
great  navigable  rivers. 

The  railroads  of  the  State  reach  an  aggregate  of  about  9,000  miles  in  length, 
being  a  greater  length  of  railroad  than  in  any  other  State. 

The  domestic  trade  of  Illinois  is  the  largest  of  any  of  the  North  Central 
States.    The  foreign  commerce  also  is  very  great 

The  Metropolis.  —  The  rapid  growth  of  Chicago  in  population  and  com- 
mercial inipiirtance  is  without  a  parallel  The  town  was  first  surveyed  in 
1830,  at  which  time  it  contained  twelve  families  besides  the  garrison  of  Fort 
Dearborn,  which  was  located  on  its  site.  Chicago  was  incorporated  as  a  city  in 
1«37.  In  the  latter  year  the  first  census  showetl  a  population  of  4,170. 
By  the  census  of  1880  the  population  had  increased  to  503,000,  in  round 
numbers. 

The  city  has  a  most  advanti^ons  situation  on  the  shore  of  Lake  Michigan, 
at  the  mouth  of  Chicago  River.  This  river,  or  bayou,  and  its  branches,  with 
numerous  slips,  afford  a  water  frontage  of  about  40  miles.  Along  the  lake  the 
city  extends  about  8  miles  north  and  south,  and  westerly  from  the  lake  alxjut 
five  miles.  The  streets,  generally  80  feet  wide,  form  a  total  length  of  about 
600  miles.  The  principal  thoroughfares  are  paved  with  wooden  blocks.  The 
buniness  part,  since  the  great  fire  of  I87I  rcconstracted  in  superb  brick  and 
iron  edifices,  presents  an  appearance  at  once  solid  and  brilliant. 

In  commercial  importance  Chicago  ranks  next  to  New  York.  More  than 
10,000  miles  of  railroad  are  directly  tributary  to  Chicago,  and  360  trains  enter 
and  leave  daily,  giving  700  arrivals  and  departures.  Its  commerce  exceetls 
f  500,000,000  annually.    It  is  the  greatest  grain-market  in  the  world.    The 


grain  is  received  and  shipped  in  bulk.  It  is  lifted  into  elevators  from  railroad- 
cars  by  buckets  ruiming  on  an  endle-ss  chain  and  operated  by  powerful  steam- 
machinery,  and  is  emptied  through  spouts  into  the  holds  of  vessels.  There  are 
16  of  these  immense  elevator  warehouses,  each  of  which  can  receive  and  ship 
100,000  bushels  per  day. 

As  a  market  for  live-stock  Chicago  is  the  most  important  center  in  the 
United  States.  The  vast  live-stock  trade  is  transacted  at  the  Union  stock- 
yards, which  occupy  350  acres.  Since  1862  -  63  Chicago  has  held  the  suprem- 
acy in  the  extent  of  pork-packing,  having  in  that  year  distanced  Cincinnati  in 
this  respect  Nearly  1,(KK),000  hogs  are  packed  every  winter.  In  addition  to 
the  great  industries  already  named,  Chicago  is  largely  engage<l  in  the  lumber 
manufacture  and  trade,  and  also  in  miscellaneous  manufacturing. 

In  October,  1871,  Chicago  was  the  scene  of  one  of  the  most  disastrous  con- 
flagrations of  mc-dem  times.  The  total  area  burned  over  was  nearly  3J  st^uare 
miles  ;  17,450  buildings  were  destroyed,  and  the  loss  amounted  to  $  2(K),(KK),000. 
The  energy  with  which  in  two  or  three  years  the  ruins  were  replaced  by  a  new 
city  of  splendid  edifices  is  one  of  the  marvels  of  the  present  century. 

Education.  —  Illinois  ranks  as  one  of  the  foremost  States  in  the  excellence 
of  its  public  schools.  It  contains  about  12,000  schools,  attended  by  nearly 
three  quarters  of  a  million  of  pupils.  The  State  Normal  University  is  at 
Normal.     The  Southern  Illinois  Normal  University  is  at  Carbondale. 

For  the  higher  education  the  State  is  well  supplied  with  universities  and 
colleges.    The  Illinois  Industrial  University  is  situated  at  Urbana. 

History.  —  The  first  settlements  in  the  State  were  made  by  the  French  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century,  after  the  explorations  of  Man^uette  and 
La  Salle.  Kaskaskia  and  Cahokia  are  the  oldest  towns  in  the  State,  having  been 
founded  by  the  French  some  time  between  1680  and  1690.  The  territory  of 
Illinois  formed  a  part  of  the  "  Northwest  Territory,"  from  which  all  the  States 
north  of  the  Ohio  and  east  of  the  Mississippi  were  subsequently  formed.  Illi- 
nois was  admitted  into  the  Union  in  1818.  Kaskaskia  was  the  first  capital, 
and  so  remained  till  1818,  when  the  government  was  remove<l  to  Vandalia,  and 
thence  to  Springfield  in  1836. 

Cities.  — In  addition  to  Chicago,  the  metropolis,  and  Springfield,  the  capi- 
tal, the  most  important  cities  are  :  — 


n^amea. 


Qniney. 


Peoria. 
Bloomln^oiic 

Aurora. 

Bockford. 

Oalesburg. 

Jacksonville. 


Alton. 
BeUeviUe. 

Bock  Island. 

Freeport 
Ottawa. 

JoUot 


Deoatar. 
Galena. 

Cairo. 

FeUn. 
Hgin- 

Latalle. 


Advantagea  of  Location. 


On  tlie  Mississippi  Biver. 


On  the  Illinois  River. 

Middle  of  the  State.   Important 

railroad  center. 
On  Fox  River.     Water-power. 
On  Rock  River.     Water-power. 
Railroad  facilities.  Fertile  fanii 

region 
Railroad  center  southwest  of 

Springfield. 

On  the  Mississippi  Fine  tmltr 
growing  and  farming  region. 

Proximity  to  Mississippi  River 
and  St  Ix>ui8.  Center  of 
cool-region  of  Sonth  Illinois. 

On  the  Mississippi  River. 

On  Pekatonica  River.  Railroad 
center. 

On  the  Illinois  River.  Water- 
power.     Coal-fleld. 

On  the  Dcs  Plaines  Biver. 


On  the  Sangamon  River. 

On  the  Galena  River  near  the 

Mississippi. 
Confluence  of  Ohio  and  Missis 

sippi  rivers. 
On  the  Illinois  River. 
On  Fox  River.     Water-power. 

On  the  Illinois  River  and  Canal. 
Coal  region. 


Industries  and  Chaiscteristics. 


Large  river  trade.  Manufacture  of  farming  im- 
plements, cabinet- ware,  stoves,  machinery, 
tobacco,  whiskey,  and  beer. 

Trade  in  lumber,  grain,  and  pork.     Distilleries. 

Extensive  trade.  Mills  and  factories.  Educa- 
tional institutions. 

I.arge  manufacturing  interests:    Extensive  trade. 

Center  of  active  business  and  manufacturing 

Active  agricultural  trade.  Seat  of  Lombard  Uni 
versity  and  Knox  CollegeL 

Varied  manufacturing.  Seat  of  several  State  in- 
stitutions for  the  deaf  and  dumb,  the  blind, 
the  imbecile.     Also  seat  of  several  colleges. 

Active  trade  and  varied  manufactures.  Exten- 
sive limestone-quarries. 

Coal-mining  Hanubcture  of  Iron,  flour,  and  beer. 
Agricultural  trade. 

Manufacture  of  plows,  wagons,  carriages,  glass, 

stoves,  etc.     Extensive  jobbing  businen. 
Varied  manufactures.    Seat  of  Freeport  College. 

Great  grain-mart.  Varied  manufactures,  Includ 
ing  those  of  starch  and  glass. 

Quarrying  and  shipping  building-slone.  Manu- 
facture of  agricultural  implements,  steel  and 
iron  rails,  stoves,  and  flour.     Grain-mart 

Large  local  trade.    Rolling-mills. 

Trade  and  manuCscturing.  Center  of  the  lead- 
mining  interest 

River  trade. 

Shipping  of  produce. 

Extensive  manufacture  of  watches,  woolen  goods, 

wood-work,  condensed  milk,  dairy-products. 
Large  coal-trade.    Manufacture  of  glass,  sine,  etc 


^  State  the  location  of  the  following  additional  cities :  — 

MoUna.  Starling.  Olaar.  ShelbTTllle. 

Monmouth.  Litchfleld.  ■aeomb.  El  Paw. 

Champaign.  Pera  KorrU  Wataeka. 

Waokagan.  Mendota.  Oentimlla.  Anna. 

Dixon.  Amhoy.  BuIiimU.  Honnt  CannaL 


64 


THE  NORTH   CENTRAL   STATES. 


WISCONSIN. 


WISCONSIN  SCENES. 


1.  Physical  Features.  —  The  surface  of  Wisconsin  presents  two 
features,  —  a  prairie  region  in  the  south  and  an  undulating  plateau 
region  in  the  north. 

2.  Advantages.  —  The  extensive  forests  in  the  north,  the  rich  de- 
posits of  lead  and  iron,  the  fertile  soil,  together  with  great  facilities 
for  commerce,  form  the  principal  natural  advantages  of  this  State. 

3.  The  leading  industries  are  agriculture,  mining,  lumbering,  and 
manufacturing. 

4.  Cities.  —  Milwau'kee  is  the  commercial  metropolis.  It  is  a 
great  wheat  market,  and  one  of  the  most  beautiful  and  flourishiag 
cities  of  the  Northwest. 

Madison,  the  capital,  is  the  seat  of  the  State  University. 


SPECIAL   GEOGRAPHY  FOR  "WISCONSIN   CLASSES. 

1^^  Wisconsin  classes  should  now  make  a  full  study  of  the  geography  of  their  State,  following  the 
Outline  on  page  30.     Refer  to  County  map  on  the  previous  page. 

Area,  56,040  square  miles.     Population  (census  of  1880),  1,315,497. 

Outline  and  Extent.  —  In  form  Wisconsin  is  irregular,  having  a  water-line 
boundary  on  the  north,  east,  and  west.  Its  extreme  length  from  north  to  south 
is  about  285  miles  ;  its  greatest  breadth  from  east  to  west,  about  255  miles. 

Surface.  —  The  State  is  in  general  an  elevated,  rolling  prairie-plateau,  from 
6(K)  to  1,200  feet  above  the  sea-level.  The  general  slope  is  toward  the  south- 
west and  south. 

The  highest  part  of  this  plateau  is  in  the  north  ;  it  fonns  the  dividing 
ridge  between  the  waters  flowing  southwest  into  the  Mississippi  River  and 
those  flowing  north  into  Lake  Superior. 

The  general  southerly  slope  is  interrupted  about  the  middle  of  the  State  by 
another  ridge  giving  origin  to  a  second  slope  drained  by  Eock  River  and  its 
tributaries. 

In  the  southeastern  part  is  a  third  ridge  or  elevation  dividing  the  water- 
courses of  Lake  Michigan  from  those  of  Green  Bay. 

Along  the  Mississippi  and  Wisconsin  rivers  are  many  of  the  peculiar  eleva- 
tions called  "  bluffs." 

Lakes.  —  Besides  the  great  lakes,  Superior  and  Michigan,  which  form  its 
northern  and  its  eastern  water-front,  the  State  has  nmnerous  beautiful  interior 
lakes,  which  afford  excellent  fish. 

The  largest  lake  is  Winnebago,  southeast  of  the  middle  of  the  State  ;  it  is 
about  twenty-eight  miles  long  and  ten  miles  wide. 

Rivers.  —  The  Mississippi,  with  the  St.  Croix,  a  tributary  stream,  forms  the 
greater  part  of  the  western  boundary. 


The  rivers  of  the  interior  flow  generally  in  a  southwest  direction,  and  dis- 
charge their  waters  into  the  Mississippi.  The  most  important  are  Wisconsin 
River  (which  is  navigable  to  Portage  City,  and  there  connects  by  canal  with 
Fox  River,  thus  extending  navigation  to  Lake  Michigan),  and  Black  and  Chip- 
pewa rivers,  valuable  for  the  flotage  of  lumber,  etc. 

Fox  River,  which  drains  Lake  Winnebago,  has  one  of  the  most  extensive  and 
reliable  water-powers  in  the  United  States. 

The  rivers  of  the  northern  slope  that  empty  into  Lake  Superior  are,  from  the 
nature  of  the  ground,  necessarily  short  and  rapid  streams. 

Climate.  —  The  climate,  though  severe,  with  long  winters,  is  regular  and 
free  from  those  frequent  changes  that  prevail  farther  south.  The  lakes,  too, 
exert  a  mitigating  influence,  the  temperature  being  about  seven  degrees  higher 
on  the  lake  side  than  on  the  Mississippi  side. 

Alinerals.  —  Lead  is  largely  mined  in  the  southwest  section  of  the  State, 
which  forms  a  part  of  the  lead-bearing  region  extending  into  Illinois  and  Iowa. 

Of  iron  rich  deposits  are  found  in  the  central,  eastern,  and  northern  parts  of 
the  State. 

Zinc  and  beautiful  varieties  of  marble  also  abound. 

Lumbering.  —  The  great  pine  forests  of  the  State  furnish  in  abundance  the 
most  valuable  timber.  Lumber  is  now  manufactured  to  the  amount  of  fifteen 
millions  of  dollars  a  year,  and  is  largely  exported. 

Agriculture.  —  In  the  production  of  wheat  this  State  ranks  as  one  of  the 
leading  States.  Oats,  rye,  barley,  corn,  potatoes,  hay,  and  hops  are  exten- 
sively cultivated. 

Live-stock  is  lai^ly  raised.  In  the  production  of  wool  and  cheese  it  is 
among  the  leading  States. 

Manufactures.  —  The  manufacturing  interest  in  this  State  is  large  and 
increasing.  Important  articles  are  :  wood-work  of  all  kinds,  agricultural  im- 
plements, machinery,  cloth,  boots  and  shoes,  paper,  etc. 

Commerce.  —  The  Mississippi,  with  its  tributaries,  and  Lakes  Superior  and 
Michigan,  afi'ord  great  commercial  facilities. 

The  chief  exports  are  wheat,  flour,  lumber,  lead,  wool,  and  live-stock. 

Education.  —  This  State  has  an  excellent  public-school  system.  There  are 
four  State  normal  schools  :  these  are  richly  endowed,  and  are  .second  to  none 
in  the  country. 

The  University  of  Wisconsin,  the  State  institution  for  the  higher  education, 
is  one  of  the  most  flourishing  in  the  Northwest.  There  are  also  several  other 
colleges  and  universities. 

History.  —  Wisconsin,  called  after  the  river  of  the  same  name,  has  been  suc- 
cessively under  French,  English,  and  American  control.  Originally  a  part  of 
the  Northwest  Territory,  it  was  made  a  separate  Territory  in  1836,  and  admitted 
into  the  Union  in  1848.  The  soil  and  climate  of  this  State  have  proved  partic- 
ularly attractive  to  natives  of  Northern  Europe,  and  large  numbers  of  Swedes 
and  Norwegians  have  made  their  home  here. 

Cities.  —  In  addition  to  Milwaukee  and  Madison  the  most  important 
places  are  :  — 


Karnes. 


Fond  du  Lac. 

Oshkosh. 
Bacine. 

Janesyille. 

La  Crosse. 

Watertown. 

Sheboygan. 
Green  Bay.    { 
Ft.  Howard.  ] 
Hanitowoc. 
Appleton. 

Beloit. 


Advantages  of  Location. 


Head     of     Winnebago    Lake. 
Fine  farming  country. 

West  shore  of  Winnebago  Lake. 

On  Lake  Michigan. 

On  Eock  River.     Water-power. 

On  the  Mississippi. 

On  Rock  River.    Water-power. 

On  Lake  Michigan 

On  opposite  sides  of  Fox  River. 

On  Lake  Michigan. 

On  the  Lower  Fox  River. 

On  Bock  River.    Water-power. 


Industries  and  Characteristics. 


Great  establishments  for  cutting  and  manufac- 
turing pine  and  hard-wood.  Active  grain- 
trade. 

Lumber  manufactures  and  trade.  Barge-build- 
ing.    Seat  of  a  State  Normal  SchooL 

Largest  manufactory  of  tlireshlng-machines  in 
the  world.  Manufacture  of  wagons,  fanning- 
mills,  fancy  castings,  etc.  Seat  of  Racine 
College. 

Manufacture  of  agricultural  implements,  house- 
hold furniture,  and  flour.   Agricultural  trade. 

Manufacture  of  lumber  and  fanning  machinery. 
Large  river  trade. 

Manufacture  of  agricultural  implements,  flour, 
etc.     Local  trade. 

Large  trade  in  grain  and  lumber. 

Manufactui-e  of  lumber,  shingles,  staves,  spokes, 
hubs,  etc. 

Lake  comm.-^rce.     Ship-building. 

Varied  manufactures,  — lumber,  wooden-ware, 
wood-pulp,  furniture,  iron,  brick,  floiu",  etc. 

Varied  manufactures,  —  building  and  roofing 
material,  ]>aiier,  paper  barrels,  machinery  for 
p.aper-mills,  water-wheels,  iron  and  steel 
goods,  windmills,  agricultural  implements, 
flour,  etc.     Seat  of  Beloit  College.         


Additional  Places,  —  Locate  and  state  something  about  the  following  additional  places  :  — 
Portage.  Milton.  Galosville.  Beaver  Dam. 

Kenosha.  Eau  Claire.  Whitewater.  Ozaukee. 


MISSOUIil. 


65 


MISSOURI. 
L  Its  Sank.  —  Missouri  ranks 
in  population  aa  the  fifth  State  in 
the  Union,  and  the  most  popu- 
lous west  of  the  Mississippi  In 
area  it  is  nearly  equal  to  the 
whole  of  New  England. 

2.  Physical  Features.  —  The 
State  is  divided  into  two  regions, 
—  the  rolling  or  prairie  region 
north  of  the  Missouri  and  Osage 
rivers,  and  the  highland  region 
including  the  Ozark  Mountains, 
south  of  these  rivers. 

3.  Besources.  —  A  fertile  soil, 
an  e.xhaustless  store  of  iron,  lead, 
and  other  minerals,  great  forests, 
vast  water-power,  and  the  means 
of  communication  afforded  by  the 
Mississippi  and  Missouri  rivers, 
constitute  the  principal  resources,  or  natural  wealth  of  Missouri. 


SCENES. 

PERSON 


4.  Industries.  —  Very  extensive 
iron-uiiuiug  is  carried  on  in  the 
section  south  of  St.  Louis;  the 
mining  of  lead  and  coal  is  an 
important  industry.  Agriculture 
is  a  leading  occupition,  and  great 
crops  of  com,  wheat,  rye,  tobacco, 
hemp,  and  grapes  are  raised  in 
the  prairie  section.  The  mauu- 
facturing  interest  is  large  and 
increasing. 

6.  Cities.  —  St.  Louis,  the  larg- 
est city  west  of  the  Mississippi 
River,  occupies  a  commanding 
position  for  domestic  and  foreign 
commerce,  and  is  largely  engaged 
in  iron-manufactures.  A  mag- 
nificent steel  bridge  crosses  the 
Mississippi  Eiver  at  this  point 
The  capital  of  the  State,  Jef- 
CiTY,  is  a  well-built,  prosperous  place. 


uuM"' 


SFECIAIi  OEOORAFH?  FOR  MISSOURI   CLASSES. 

ly  HUsouri  classes  shonld  now  nuke  a  fall  study  of  the  geography  of  their  State,  following 
the  Outline  on  page  30.     Refer  to  County  map,  page  02: 

Area,  60,415  square  milea.    Population  (census  of  1880),  2,168,380. 

OntUne  and  Extent.  —  Missouri  has  an  irregular  outline.  Its  length  is 
about  318  miles  ;  its  breadth,  about  280  miles.  It  is  one  and  a  half  times  as 
large  as  New  York,  eight  times  the  size  of  Massachusetts,  and  as  large  as 
England  and  Wales. 

Surface.  —  The  section  north  of  the  Missouri  Kiver  is  generally  undu- 
lating prairie-land,  with  low  level  bottom-lands  along  the  rivers  ;  the  streams 
are  generally  belted  with  forest  The  section  south  of  the  Missouri  Eiver 
presents  a  great  variety  of  surface.  The  ridges  forming  the  Ozark  group  of 
mountains  extend  in  a  direction  northeast  and  southwest,  separating  the  waters 
that  flow  into  the  Mississippi  from  those  that  flow  into  the  Missouri.  Beyond 
the  Osage  River  commences  a  great  expanse  of  prairie.  In  the  southeastern 
part  is  an  extensive  swamp. 

Climate.  —  I^Ussouri,  lying  between  the  paraUels  of  36J°  and  40^°  north 
latitude,  enjoys  a  temperature  intermediate  between  the  cold  of  the  northern 
States  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  and  the  heat  of  the  Gulf  States.  The  salu- 
brity of  its  climate  is  proverbial.  The  summers  are  long  and  warm,  the 
winters  generally  short  and  mild.  On  the  parallel  of  St.  Louis  the  fall  of 
snow  is  seldom  more  than  two  or  three  inches  deep,  and  rarely  remains  on 
the  ground  a  week. 

Rivers.  —  This  State  enjoys  the  navigation  of  the  two  greatest  rivers  in  the 
United  States.  By  means  of  the  Mi-ssissippi,  which  forms  the  entire  eastern 
boundary,  the  State  has  communication  with  the  most  northern  part  of  the 
Union  ;  by  means  of  the  Missouri  River  communication  is  extended  to  the 
Rocky  Mountains.  These  two  great  channels  are  the  final  reservoirs  of  all  the 
streams  of  the  State. 

The  chief  tributaries  of  the  Missouri  in  this  State  are  the  Grand,  Chariton, 
Osage,  and  Gasconade.  The  chief  tributaries  of  the  Mississippi  are  the  Salt 
and  Maramec  In  the  southern  piart  of  the  State  rise  tiie  head-streams  of  the 
St.  Francis  and  White  rivers,  flowing  southward  through  the  State  of  Arkansas 
into  the  Mississippi 

Minerals. —  In  the  number,  extent,  and  value  of  its  mineral  resources  Mis- 
souri surpasses  every  other  State. 

Iron  holds  the  first  place,  and  Missouri  deserves  the  title  of  "  the  Iron 
State."  This  metal  aVwunds  in  many  parts,  but  the  immense  masses  of  almost 
solid  ore  found  in  Shepherd  Mountain,  Pilot  Knob,  and  Iron  Mountain  — 
situated  in  St.  Franfois,  Iron,  and  Reynolds  counties  —  greatly  surpass  the 
other  deposits. 

LtaA.  —  In  Missouri  is  one  of  the  two  great  lead-bearing  regions  of  the 
United  States,  —  the  other  being  in  Iowa,  Wisconsin,  and  Illinois.  The  yield 
is  very  large,  though  the  mines  are  but  imperfectly  developed. 


The  coal  deposits  are  of  vast  extent,  and  are  estimated  by  the  State  geologist 
to  be  capable  of  yielding  100,000  tons  a  day  for  three  thousand  years. 

Other  valuable  metals  and  minerals  found  in  large  quantities  in  the  State 
are  copper,  tin,  zinc,  cobalt,  nickel,  kaoline,  fire-clay,  lithographic-stone,  salt, 
and  fine  marble,  granite,  and  other  building-stone. 

Manufactures.  —  The  manufacturing  interests  of  the  State  are  diversified, 
and  are  rapidly  developing  :  it  already  ranks  as  the  fifth  State  in  manufactur- 
ing importance,  and  in  1870  the  value  of  the  products  was  over  $200,000,000. 

Leading  articles  of  manufacture  are  iron  and  iron- ware,  wooden-ware,  cotton 
fabrics,  clothing,  boots  and  shoes,  and  wine. 

Education. —  Missouri  has  a  fine  system  of  public  schools,  and  numerous 
colleges.  It  has  normal  .schools  at  Kirksville,  Warrensburg,  Cape  Girardeau, 
and  Jefiferson  City.  The  University  of  Missouri  and  the  Agricultural  College 
are  at  Columbia  ;  the  School  of  Mines  is  at  Rolla. 

History. —  Missouri  takes  its  name  from  its  chief  river,  signifying  "muddy 
water."  It  was  originally  a  part  of  the  Louisiana  purchase,  and  when  the 
present  State  of  Louisiana  was  admitted  the  remainder  of  the  extensive  domain 
was  erected  into  the  Territory  of  Missouri.  The  State  was  formed  from  a  part, 
of  this  Territory  and  was  admitted  into  the  Union  in  1820. 

Cities.  —  In  addition  to  St.  Louis  and  the  capital  the  leading  cities  are  :  — 


Names. 

Advantages  of  Location. 

Indostriea  and  Characteristics. 

Kansas  City. 

On  the  Missouri  Biver.    Great  rail- 

Distributing-point  for   trade   of  the 

road  center. 

Missouri  Valley.  Founderies,  ma- 
chine-shops, etc.  Immense  beef- 
packing  establishments. 

St.  Joseph, 

On  the  Missouri  River. 

Has  various  roanuCictures,  and  is  the 
trading  center  for  the  northwestern 
part  of  the  State. 

Hannibal. 

On  the  Mississippi  River. 

Flouring-mills,  car^hope,  etc.  Qreat 
lumber-mart 

St.  Charles. 

On  the  Missouri  River.     Proximity  to 

Center  of  a  rich  wheat  and  com  region. 

St  Louis. 

Quarries  and  coal-mines  and  some 
manufactories. 

Springfield. 

In  a  rich  lead  region  in  the  southern 
part  of  the  State. 

Center  of  trade.    Lesd-mlning. 

Sedalia. 

Important  railroad  center. 

Extensive  local  tradei 

Lexington. 

On  the  Missouri  River.     Coal-fields. 

Trade.    Manufkcture  of  lumbar,  floor, 

rope,  eto. 
Trading  center. 

ChilUcothe. 

Railroad  point 

Cape  Girardeau. 

On  the  Mississippi  River. 

Manufai-ture  of  flour,  lime,  barrels, 
etc.  RIver-trada.  Seat  of  a  State 
Normal  School 

Kezioo. 

Railrowi  CacUities. 

Trade  and  varied  manufactures.  Seat 
of  Hardin  College. 

Colambia. 

Central  part  of  the  SUte. 

Beat  of  the  SUte  Unlvenity. 

^  state  the  location  of  the  following  additional  place* :  — 
Independence.  Palmyra.  Canton.  Pleasant  Hill.  Cartha(a. 

BoonvUle.  Iron  Mount.        CarroUton.        Liberty.  Reimann. 


66 


THE  NOETH  CENTEAL  STATES. 


IOWA. 

L  Physical  Features.  —  Iowa,  lying  between  the  Mississippi  on 
the  east  and  the  Missouri  on  the  west,  is  a  prairie  State. 

2.  Resources. — Its  fertile  soU,  rich  deposits  of  coal  and  lead, 
and  fine  natural  means  of  communication,  form  the  principal 
sources  of  the  wealth  of  this  State. 

3.  Industries.  —  Agriculture  is  a  leading  industry ;  in  raising 
wheat,  corn,  and  stock,  Iowa  ranks  with  the  leading  States.  Lead 
and  coal  mining  are  extensively  followed.  The  manufactures  are 
important. 

4.  Cities.  —  DUBUQUK  [du-buke']  carries  on  extensive  manufac- 
turing, and  has  a  large  trade  by  river  and  railroad.  Des  Moines 
is  the  capital  and  the  largest  city. 


BRIDGE  OVER  THE  MISSOURI  AT  COUNCIL  BLUFFS. 

SPECIAI.  GEOGRAPHY  FOR  IOWA  CLASSES. 

|^~  Iowa  classes  should  now  make  a  full  study  of  the  geography  of  their  State,  following  the 
Outline  on  page  30.    ^fer  to  County  map,  pages  62,  63. 

Area,  56,025  square  miles.    Population  (census  of  1880),  1,624,615. 

Position.  —  Iowa  c^ecupies  a  central  pcsition  in  North  America  :  it  is 
almost  equidistant  from  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans,  and  is  nearly  midway 
between  the  Arctic  Ocean  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

Outline  and  ^xtent.  —  The  State  is  bounded  on  the  north  and  on  the 
Bouthjjy  paralj^s  of  latitude.  The  eastern  and  western  boundaries  follow  the 
crooked  courses  of  the  Mississippi  and  Missouri  rivers.  The  general  fonn  of 
the  State  is,  therefore,  rectangular. 

The  greatest  extent  of  the  State  from  north  to  south  is  (leaving  out  the 
angle  at  the  southeast  comer)  about  200  miles  ;  its  greatest  extent  from  east 
to  west  is  a  little  over  300  miles. 

Surface.  —  The  surface  is  a  rolling  prairie,  with  a  general  slope  south- 
ward. There  are  also  two  minor  drainage-slopes,  one  southeastward  to  the 
Mississippi ;  the  other  southwestward  to  the  ilissouri.  There  are  no  moun- 
tains in  this  State,  though  there  are  gently  sloping  hills  of  considerable 
elevation,  and  there  are  also  bluffs  along  the  river-courses. 

The  dividing  ridge  that  forms  the  great  watershed  separating  the  streams 
flowing  into  the  Mississippi  from  those  flowing  into  the  Missouri  traverses  the 
counties  of  Dickinson,  Clay,  Buena  Vista,  Sac,  Carroll,  Audubon',  Guthrie, 
and  Adair  ;  thence  trending  southeastward  it  passes  into  Missouri. 

Rivers.  —  The  rivers  of  the  State  are  on  a  magnificent  scale.  The  Missis- 
sippi winds  along  the  eastern  border  for  about  450  mUes.  On  the  western 
border  the  Missouri,  from  the  mouth  of  the  Big  Sioux,  flows  for  300  miles. 

The  Iowa  rivers  proper  flow  into  the  Mississippi  on  the  one  hand,  and  into 
the  Missouri  on  the  other.  The  tributaries  of  the  Mississippi  are,  from  the 
length  of  the  main  slope,  necessarily  longer  than  those  of  the  Missoiui. 

Lakes.  —  In  the  northern  part  df  the  State  there  are  numerous  small  but 
beautiful  lakes,  which  belong  to  a  system  of  lakes  extending  northward  into 
Minnesota.  The  largest,  Lake  Okcboji,  or  Spirit  Lake,  is  15  miles  in  length, 
with  a  greatest  breadth  of  2  mOes. 


Minerals.  —  The  coal-field  of  Iowa  embraces  an  area  of  several  thousand 
square  miles,  and  is  practically  inexhaustible.  The  coal  is  bituminous  and  of 
excellent  quality.  The  mines  of  Fort  Dodge,  Moin'gona,  Des  Moines  [de- 
■moin'],  and  Oskaloosa  are  the  most  largely  developed  ;  but  many  others  are 
worked  in  different  parts  of  the  coal-field. 

The  lead-mines  in  the  Galena  limestone  have  been  worked  for  many  years. 
The  lead-bearing  region  reaches  the  Mississippi  River  at  Dubuque,  and  lies 
along  the  valley  of  Turkey  River  toward  the  northwest,  but  only  the  mines 
near  the  Mississippi  have  been  worked.  From  4,000,000  to  6,000,000  lbs.  of 
ore  have  been  smelted  annually  at  the  Dubuque  mines. 

Other  minerals  of  considerable  value  are  found  in  the  State,  —  gypsum  in 
very  great  quantities  at  and  near  Fort  Dodge,  building-stone  of  the  best 
description,  various  clays,  etc. 

Boil.  —  Iowa  is  famed  for  the  fertility  of  its  soil,  and  almost  the  whole  sur- 
face of  the  State  is  tillable.  The  evenness  of  the  surface  is  also  of  great 
advantage,  in  allowing  the  use  of  farm  machinery. 

Agriculture.  —  In  agriculture  the  State  ranks  high.  According  to  the 
census  of  1880  it  produced  more  oats  and  Indian  com  than  any  other  State 
except  Illinois.  The  other  principal  crops  are  wheat,  barley,  rye,  buckwheat, 
flax,  hemp,  and  potatoes. 

In  stock-raising  it  ranks  among  the  leading  States  ;  it  is  a  particularly  fine 
sheep  country,  and  great  quantities  of  wool  are  exported. 

Manufactures.  —  The  article  most  extensively  manufactured,  and  the 
annual  value  of  which  is  greatest,  is  flour.  Next  come  sawed  lumber,  woolen 
goods,  boots  and  shoes,  farm  and  mill  machinery,  linseed-oil,  paper,  leather,  etc. 

Commerce.  —  Iowa  has  no  direct  foreign  commerce,  but  its  trade  with  the 
Atlantic  and  Gulf  ports  is  extensive.  The  exports  consist  of  the  products  of 
agriculture  and  the  mines  ;  and  the  imports,  of  Eastern  and  foreign  mantifac- 
tures,  groceries,  etc. 

Railroads.  —  In  the  development  of  its  railroad  system  Iowa  has  made 
remarkable  progress.  In  1855  there  were  but  68  miles  of  railroad  ;  in  1874, 
the  total  length  exceeded  4,000  miles. 

Education.  —  In  addition  to  a  well-oi^anized  system  of  common  and  high 
schools,  the  State  has  about  twenty  colleges  and  universities.  The  State  Uni- 
versity is  at  Iowa  City  ;  the  Agricultural  College  is  at  Ames,  and  the  State 
Normal  School  is  at  Cedar  Falls. 

History.  —  The  name  Iowa  is  taken  from  the  river  thus  called.  The  State 
was  originally  a  part  of  the  vast  territory  included  in  Louisiana,  bought  by 
the  United  States  from  France  in  1803.  It  was  organized  as  a  separate 
Territory  in  1638,  and  admitted  as  a  State  in  1846. 

Cities.  —  In  addition  to  Des  Moines,  the  capital,  and  Dubuque,  the  most 
important  places  are  :  — 


Names. 


Davenport. 

Burlington. 
Keokuk. 
Counoil  BIoSb. 

Clinton. 

Muscatine. 
Cedar  Bapids. 
Iowa  City. 

Ottumwa. 

Fort  Madison. 

Lyons. 


Advantages  of  Location. 


On  the  Mississippi,  opposite  Kock 

Island.  The  Mississippi  is  bridged 

here. 
On  the  Mississippi,  in  southern  part 

of  State.  The  river  is  bridged  here. 
On    the    Mississippi,    at    southern 

angle  of  State. 
On   the    Missouri    River,    opposite 

Omaha.    The  river  is  here  spanned 

by  a  fine  iron  bridge. 

On  the  Mississippi,  at  the  most 
eastern  point  of  the  State.  The 
river  is  bridged  here. 

On  the  Mississippi. 

On  Cedar  River.    Water-power. 

On  the  Iowa  River. 

On  Des  Moines  River.  Railroad 
center. 

On  the  Mississippi,  between  Bur- 
lington and  Keokuk. 

On  the  Mississippi,  138  miles  due 
west  from  Chicago. 


Industries  and  Characteristics. 


Large  river  and  railroad  trade  in  agricul- 
tural products.  Manufacture  of  cotton 
and  woolen  goods,  sawed  lumber,  etc. 

River  and  railroad  trade. 

River  and  railroad  trade.  Pork-packing 
and  manufacture  of  lumber,  tobacco,  etc, 

Center  of  trade  for  western  section  of 
State.    Great  railroad  terminus. 


Largo  trade.  Lumber-mills,  paper-mills, 
chair  and  wheelbarrow  manufactories, 
etc. 

Railroad  and  river  trade. 

Varied  manxifacturing.    Local  trade. 

Former  capital.  Seat  of  the  State  Unt 
versity. 

Trade  and  manufactures. 

Railroad  and  river  trade.  Manufacture  of 
lumber,  agricultural  implements,  wine, 
etc.    Seat  of  State  Penitentiary. 

Manufacture  of  lumber,  iron,  paper,  flour, 
farming  implements,  carriages,  and  wag- 
ons, etc. 


1^*  Pupils  may  state  the  location  of  each  of  the  following  additional  places,  and  anything 
known  regarding  their  industries  :  — 


Waterloo. 
Waverly. 
Sioux  [soo]  City. 


Marshall  town. 
Cedar  Falls. 
Fairfield. 


Fort  Dodge. 

Independence. 

McGregor. 


Mk  Pleasant 

Oskaloos'a. 

Winterset 


MINNESOTA. 


67 


MINNESOTA. 


FALLS   or   ST.    ANTHONY,    AND    LUMBCRINQ    BCCNi 


L  Physical  Peatores.  —  Minnesota  occupies  the  central  part  of 
North  America,  and  includes  the  "  Height  of  Land  "  which  divides 
the  Arctic  Plain  from  the  Valley  of  the  Mississippi 

2.  Besonrces.  —  The  State  has  a  fertile  soil,  great  forest  wealth, 
and  abundant  natural  highways  for  trade  and  interconmiuni- 
cation. 

3.  The  leading  industries  are  (1)  agriculture,  the  chief  products 
being  wheat  and  oats ;  (2)  lumbering ;  and  (3)  manufacturing,  the 
principal  articles  being  sawed  lumber  and  ilour. 

4.  Cities.  —  St.  Paul,  the  capital,  is  one  of  the  commercial 
centers  of  the  State. 


SPECIAL  GEOGRAPHY  FOR  IfllNNESOTA  CLASSES. 

ly  Minnesota  classes  should  now  make  a  full  study  of  the  geography  of  their  Stat«,  (olluwing  the 
Outline  on  page  30.     Rel^r  to  County  map,  page  58. 

Area,  83,365  square  miles.    Population  (census  of  1880),  780,807. 

Outline  and  Extent.  —  Minnesota  is  of  irregular  outline.  Its  length 
from  north  to  south  is  about  380  miles,  and  its  extreme  width  300  miles. 

Stuface.  —  The  States  of  Minnesota  and  Wi.sconsin,  with  the  Upper  Penin- 
sula of  Michigan,  form  an  extensive  tindulating  table-land,  with  an  average 


height  of  about  1,000  feet  In  Northwestern  Minnesota  the  surface  reaches 
a  height  of  1,700  feet.  This  elevation  is  known  as  the  "  Height  of  Land," — 
the  highest  region  between  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  Hudson  Bay  ;  it  forms  a 
watershed  which  sends  out  streams  to  all  points  of  the  compass. 

Rivera  and  Lakes.  —  On  the  Height  of  Land  the  Mississippi  takes  its 
rise.  Issuing  from  Lake  Itasca  as  a  slender  rivulet,  it  receives  the  waters 
of  lakes  Cass,  Winibigosh'ish,  Leech,  and  many  other  smaller  lakes,  and  is 
swelled  by  the  two  main  tributaries,  —  the  Minnesota  and  SL  Croix  [kroi\ 
It  is  navigable  for  steamboats  below  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony. 

The  Red  River  of  the  North,  which  forms  a  part  of  the  western  boundary, 
belongs  to  the  Hudson  Bay  system  of  rivers.  It  rises  in  Lake  Traverse,  and 
receives  the  waters  of  several  tributary  lakes  and  rivers. 

Rainy  River,  the  outlet  of  a  long  chain  of  lakes  which  form  a  part  of  the 
northern  boundary,  flows  into  the  Lake  of  the  Woods,  which  has  its  outlet 
in  the  Hudson  Bay  river-system. 

The  Pigeon  and  the  St.  Louis  rivers  flow  into  Lake  Superior,  and  belong 
to  the  St.  Lawrence  Basin. 

In  addition  to  the  lakes  already  named  the  State  is  dotted  with  numerous 
smaller  bodies  of  fresh  water. 

Climate.  —  The  winters  are  long  and  cold,  but  dry  and  bracing,  and  the 
climate  is  famed  for  its  salubrity. 

Scenery. —  The  Upper  Mississippi  is  noted  for  its  clear  waters  and  pic- 
turesque scenery.     St.  Anthony  and  Minnehaha  are  well-known  cataracts. 

Agrlcaltore.  —  The  staple  product  is  wheat,  in  the  production  of  which 
Minnesota  is  one  of  the  leading  States.    The  other  cereals  are  largely  raised. 

Lumbering.  —  Great  quantities  of  lumber  are  sawed  in  the  State,  and 
immense  rafts  of  logs  are  floated  down  the  Mississippi  to  be  sawed  in  Iowa, 
Illinois,  and  other  States  in  the  Mississippi  Valley. 

riah.  —  The  lakes  and  rivers  abound  in  white-fish  and  trout. 

Education.  —  Minnesota  has  a  fine  system  of  public  schools,  three  State 
normal  schools,  and  numerous  higher  institutions  of  learning.  The  State 
University  is  at  Minneap'olis. 

History.  —  Minnesota  was  first  explored  by  the  Jesuit  missionaries  two 
hundred  years  ago,  and  was  a  part  of  the  great  Louisiana  purchase.  It  was 
organized  as  a  Territory  in  1849,  and  became  a  State  in  1858. 

Citiea.  —  In  addition  to  St.  Paul,  the  largest  cities  are  :  — 


Names. 


Minneapolis. 

Wino'na. 

Bed  Wing.  1 
Hastings.  ) 
Stillwater. 

Bochester. 
Manka'to. 
Suluth'. 


Advantages  of  Location. 


Falls  of  St  Anthony.     Water 

power. 
On  the  Mississippi 

On  the  right  bank  of  the  Uissis- 

slppL 
On  Lake  St  Croli. 

Southeast  part  of  the  Stale. 
On  Minnesota  River. 
On  Lake  Superior.    Terminus  of 
Northern  Paclflo  Railroad. 


Industries  and  Chatscterlstic*. 


Immense  lumber  manufacture.     Seat  of  State 

University. 
Great  lumber  and  wheat  trade.    Seat  of  First 

State  Normal  School. 
Largest  primary  wheat-markets  in  the  world. 

Great  lumber-mart     Seat  of  State  Peniten- 
tiary. 
Large  wheat-trade. 
Seat  of  Second  State  Normal  School 
Extensive  lake  trade.    Iron  manufkctorea. 


'  State  the  location  of  the  following  additional  places:  — 

St  Cloud.  Faribault  St  Peter.  Rashfbrd. 

AnatiiL  Owatonna.  Shakopee  City.  St  Cbarlea. 


TOPICAL   REVIEW   OF  THE    NORTH    CENTRAL   STATES. 


Kaaas. 

Am. 

Popnlatkm 
by  Census  of  ■». 

Capitals. 

Cliiei  C1C7  ana  fopoiaLion  (in  round 
numbers)  by  Census  of  1880. 

Industrial  Fonoita. 

Kentacky. 

sq.  miles. 
40,400 

1,648,690 

Frankfort 

Louisville  (124,000). 

Culture  of  tobacco  and  grain,  stock-rai.sing,  manufacturing. 

Ohio. 

41,0«0 

8,198,062 

Columbus. 

Cincinnati  (256,000). 

Agriculture  and  pasturage,  coal  and  iron  mining,  manufacturing. 

Indiana. 

86,360 

1,978,801 

Indianapolis. 

Indianapolis  (76,000). 

Agriculture,  coal-mining,  manufacturing. 

Michigan. 

58,915 

1,638,937 

Lansing. 

Detroit  (116,000). 

Agriculture,  mining,  lumbering,  fisheries. 

Illinoii. 

56,860 

8,077,871 

Springfield. 

Chicago  (603,000). 

Agriculture,  coal  and  lead  mining,  manufacturing. 

Wisoontin. 

66,040 

1,316,497 

Madison. 

MUwaukee  (116,000). 

Agriculture,  lead  mining,  lumbering,  manufacturing. 

MiiioorL 

69,416 

2,168,880 

Jeflerson  City. 

St.  Louis  (860,000). 

Agriculture,  iron-mining,  manufacturing. 

Iowa. 

66,026 

1,624,616 

Des  Moines. 

Des  Moines  (23,600). 

Agriculture,  coal  and  lead  mining,  manufacturing. 

Kinnetota. 

88,866 

780,778 

St.  Paul. 

Minneapolis  (47,000). 

Agriculture,  lumbering,  manufacturing. 

68 


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THE  PLAINS  AND  KOCKY  MOUNTAIN  EEGION. 


69 


THE   PLAINS   AND    ROCKY   MOUNTAIN   REGION, 


INTRODUCTION. 

I.    THE    PLAINS. 

L  States  and  Territoriei.  —  In 

the  section  of  the  Plains  are  in- 
cluded Texas,  the  Indian  Terri- 
tory, Kansas,  Nebraska,  South 
Dakota,  and  North  Dakota. 

2.  Situation. — These  form  a  tier 
of  States  extending  from  north  to 
south  through  twenty-four  degrees 
of  latitude,  and  occupying  the  east- 
era  slope  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

3.  Physical  Features.  — The  sur- 
face consists  of  an  undulating  and 
generally  treeless,  grass-covered 
plain,  which  has  a  very  gradual 
rise  from  the  Mississippi  toward 
the  Kooky  Mountains.  With  the 
exception  of  the  Texan  rivera,  all 
the  streams  of  this  region  belong 
to  the  Mississippi  system. 

4.  Resources  and  Industries. — 
The  rolling  plains  afford  tine  pas- 
turage for  cattle,  and  the  rich 
soil  of  the  river-bottoms  is  well 
adapted  for  tillage.  Hence  agri- 
culture and  stock-raising  are  the 
leading  industries. 


II.    THE    ROCKY   MOUNTAIN    REGION. 

L  States  and  Territories.  —  The 
Rocky  Mountain  section  includes  the  States  of  Monta'na  and 
Colora'do,  and  the  Territories  of  New  Mexico  and  Wyo'ming, 
which  are  crossed  by  the  main  ridge  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

2.  Situation.  —  This  section  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  49th 
parallel,  which  separates  it  from  British  America,  and  on  the 
south  it  extends  to  31^°  north  latitude,  where  it  abuts  on  Mexico. 
The  meridian  of  103°  of  west  longitude  may  be  said  to  form  the 
general  eastern  boundary,  while  on  the  west  it  adjoins  the  Pa- 
cific States  and  Territories. 

3.  Surface.  —  The  grand  natural  feature  of  this  region  is  the 
Rocky  Mountain  system,  the  main  axis  of  which  traverses  it  in  a 


CAftON    or   THE   COLORADO. 


general  southeasterly  direction. 
The  Rocky  Mountains,  within  this 
section,  comprise  several  chains 
more  or  less  parallel  and  connected 
by  numerous  cross  ranges.  They 
have  an  average  elevation  of  10,000 
feet;  but  some  of  the  peaks  are 
more  than  1 5,000  feet  in  height. 

4.  Climate.  —  This  section  has 
a  cool  climate,  owing  to  its  eleva- 
tion above  the  level  of  the  sea.  It 
is  also  noted  for  its  dryness.  This 
is  due  to  its  great  distance  from 
the  ocean,  the  rain-clouds  from 
which  are  deprived  of  their  moist- 
ure by  the  intervening  mountains. 

5.  Industries.  —  This  section  is 
rich  in  mines  of  gold,  silver,  cop- 
per, lead,  and  coal,  and  the  vast 
grassy  plains  afford  fine  pasturage; 
hence  mining  and  stock-raising 
form  the  leading  industries  of  the 
inhabitants. 

&  Scenery. — Some  of  the  grand- 
est scenery  in  the  world  is  found 
in  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Among 
the  most  remarkable  localities  are 
the  mountain  scenery  and  "parks" 
of  Colorado,  the  Fire  Hole  Basin, 
and  the  Caiion  of  the  Yellowstone. 
I.  The  Fire  Hole  Basin  is  in  the  valley  of 
the  Madison  River,  one  of  the  head-streams 
of  the  Missouri.  It  contains  many  hundreds  of  boiling  springs  and  spouting  geysers, 
far  exceeding  those  of  Iceland  in  size  and  grandeur.  The  "Grand  Geyser,"  the  most 
magnificent  in  the  world,  throws  a  stream  of  hot  water  to  a  height  of  300  feet 

II.  The  Cafion  of  the  Yellowstone  is  a  great  mountain-rent,  with  perpendicular 
basaltic  walls,  from  1,000  to  2,000  feet  high.  For  a  distance  of  25  miles  along  this 
mighty  chasm  the  river  rushes  with  fearful  velocity,  making  in  one  place  a  leap  of  450 
feet,  forming  one  of  the  grandest  of  waterfalls.  The  rocks  in  many  places  along  the 
caiion  are  worn  into  fantastic  shapes,  resembling  ruined  castles  with  minarets  and  spires. 

7.  National  Park.  —  A  section  of  this  magnificent  mountain-re- 
gion, nearly  the  size  of  Connecticut,  has  l)een  set  apart  by  Congixjss 
as  a  great  "  National  Park."  Within  its  limits  are  several  thousand 
boiling  springs  and  geysers,  and  many  grand  waterfalls,  deep  caflons, 
beautiful  lakes,  and  rugged  mountain  peaks. 


MAP    STUDIES. 

Texas.  —  1.  What  abbreviation  is  used  ?  Jns.  Tex.  2.  Bound  this  State.  3.  Meas- 
ure by  the  scale  of  miles  the  extent  of  the  Gulf  coast  4.  Which  part  of  the  State  is 
mountainous  ?  6.  In  what  direction  do  most  of  the  rivers  flow  ?  6.  Name  the  prin- 
cipal rivers.     7.  Where  is  the  capital  ?    8.  Name  three  seaports. 

Indian  Territory.  —  1.  What  abbreviation  is  used  !  Ana.  Ind.  Ter.  2.  Bound 
the  Indian  Territory.  3.  What  is  the  nature  of  the  aurface  ?  4  Name  the  largest 
rivers.     5.  Where  is  Tal'e<|uah  ? 

Kanaaa.  —  1.  A^Tiat  abbreviation  is  used  t  yins.  Kaa.  2.  Bound  this  State. 
3.  What  meridian  is  the  western  boundary  of  Kansas  ?  4.  What  parallel  is  the 
northern  boundary  of  this  State  ?  5.  Name  and  describe  the  principal  rivers. 
6.  Where  is  Atchison  ?  —  Leavenworth  f  —  Topeka  ?  —  I.i8Wrence  ?  —  Fort  Scott  ? 

Nebraska.  —  (Afaji,  p.  71.)  1.  What  abbreviation  is  used  ?  Jns.  Neb.  2.  Bound 
thU  State.  3.  What  great  river  flows  through  Nebraska  ?  4  How  many  degrees 
of  latitude  between  the  north  and  south  boundaries  ?  5.  Where  is  Omaha  ?  6.  Where 
U  Fremont  1  —  Columbus  ?    7.  What  is  the  capital  T 


South  Dakota.  —  {Map.  p.  71)  —  1.  What  abbreviation  is  used'  Ana.  S. 
Dak.    2.  Bound  it   3.  What  boundary  rivers  hais  it '    4.  Wliat  interior  rivers  t 

North  Dakota.  —  1.  What  abbreviation  is  used  '  Ana.  N.  Dak.  2.  What 
parallel  forms  the  northern  boundary  '    3.   What  great  river  crosses  U»e  State  ? 

Colorado. —  1.  Wliat  abbreviation  is  used  '  Ana  Colo.  2.  Bound  this  State. 
3.  Name  the  rivers  that  rise  in  Colorado.    4.  Where  is  Denver '  —  Central  City ' 

New  Mexico. —1.  What  abbreviation  is  used'  Ana.  N.  Mex.  2.  Bound 
tliis  Territory.  3.  What  large  river  flows  tlirough  it '  4.  What  part  is  most 
mountainous  '    5.  Where  is  Santa  Fc  '  —  Albuquerque  [al-bu-kerk"\  ' 

Wyoming.  —  (AAap  p.  71) — 1.  What  abbreviation  is  u.sed  '  Ana.  Wy.  Ter. 
2.  Bound  it.  3.  What  mounUvins  are  in  it  '>  4.  What  railroad  passes  through  it ' 
5.  Near  what  part  of  Wyoming  is  tlie  National  Park '    6.  Where  is  Cheyenne  >. 

Montana.  —  (.1/ap  p  71.) — 1.  What  abbreviation  is  used'  Ana.  Mont  2. 
Bound  it.  3.  What  mouuuvius  are  in  Montana  '  4.  What  large  rivers '  5.  Near 
what  part  of  Montana  is  the  National  Park!  6.  Wherein  Virginia  City?— Hel'ena^ 


"«=r 


70 


THE  PLAINS  AND   EOCKY   MOUNTAIN  EEGION. 


TEXAS, 


SOEN£   IN    TEXAS. 


L  Physical  Features.  —  Texas,  the  largest  State  in  the  Union, 
has  the  physical  features  both  of  the  Gulf  States  and  the  Plains. 
Its  surface  consists  of  a  succession  of  great  terraces  sloping  grad- 
ually from  the  Eocky  Mountains  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

2.  Advantages.  —  Some  of  the  natural  advantages  of  this  State 
are  a  fertile  soil,  vast  grassy  plains,  an  abundant  supply  of  coal, 
iron,  and  salt,  and  excellent  means  of  communication. 

3.  The  leading  industries  are  (1)  stock-raising,  in  which  Texas 
is  the  foremost  State ;  and  (2)  agriculture,  the  chief  products  being 
cotton  and  sugar,  with  corn  and  other  cereals. 

4.  Cities.  —  Galveston,  the  largest  city,  has  an  extensive  and 

increasing  cotton  trade,  and  is  the  port  through  which  nearly  all 

the  exports  and  imports  of  the  State  pass. 

Houston  is  a  flourishing  city  and  important  railroad  center,  with  a  large 
internal  tra<le.  San  Antonio  is  the  center  of  the  overland  wagon-trade 
with  New  Mexico.  Dallas  is  a  new  city  in  the  northern  part  of  the  State. 
Austin  is  the  capital. 


SPECIAL  GEOGRAPHY  FOR  TEXAS  CLASSES. 

|^~  Texas  classes  should  now  make  a  full  study  of  the  geography  of  their  State,  following  the 

Outline  on  page  30. 

Area,  265,780  square  miles.  Population  (census  of  1880),  1,501,749. 
Outline  and  Extent.  —  The  State  has  a  very  irregular  outline.  The 
longest  line  that  can  be  drawn  from  north  to  south  is  about  700  miles  ; 
that  from  east  to  west,  about  800  miles.  In  area  it  is  by  far  the  largest  State 
in  the  Union,  being  equal  to  the  New  England  and  the  Middle  States,  together 
with  Maryland,  Virginia,  and  North  Carolina.  It  has  a  greater  extent  than 
France  or  the  German  Empire. 

Physical  Features.  —  Between  the  level  plain  bordering  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  in  the  southeastern  part  and  the  mountain  and  plateau  region  in  the 
west,  the  surface  of  Texas  presents  three  terraces. 

The  first  terrace  is  the  coast  plain,  extending  from  25  to  60  miles  inland  from 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  It  consists  mainly  of  fertile  lowlands  wooded  only 
along  the  banks  of  the  rivers.  This  region  has  a  semi-tropical  climate,  a  rich 
alluvial  soil,  and  is  adapted  to  the  culture  of  cotton,  rice,  sugar,  tobacco,  etc. 

The  second  terrace  is  a  region  of  hill-lands,  —  high  rolling  prairies,  narrow 
wooded  bottoms,  and  "  islands "  of  timber.  It  has  a  dry  and  healthful  cli- 
mate, is  well  watered  by  numerous  rivers,  and  is  excellently  adapted  to  the 
culture  of  the  cereals  and  the  vine,  and  to  pasturage. 

The  third  terrace  is  a  table-land  rising  to  the  height  of  over  2,000  feet,  and 
forming  the  eastern  base  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  some  outlying  ridges  of 
which  extend  into  the  western  part  of  the  State.  This  region  has  been  known 
from  early  Spanish  times  as  the  Llano  Estaea'do,  or  "  staked  plain."  Its 
characteristic  vegetation  consists  of  the  cactus,  the  aloe,  mesquite,  etc. 


River  System.  —  The  main  boundary  rivers  are  the  Red  and  Sabine  on 
the  north  and  east,  and  the  Rio  Grande  on  the  west. 

The  chief  rivers  belonging  wholly  to  Texas  are  the  Trinity,  which  is  navi- 
gated in  high  stages  of  water  to  Magnolia  Bluff,  about  300  miles  ;  the  Brazos 
(length  950  miles),  which  is  navigated  to  Columbia,  about  50  miles  ;  the 
Nueces  (length  350  miles),  which,  with  its  main  branch,  the  Rio  Frio,  is 
navigated  about  150  miles.  The  Colorado,  on  account  of  rafts  and  other 
obstructions  is  not  navigated. 

Agriculture.  —  Texas  has  the  finest  facilities  for  agriculture.  In  the  pro- 
duction of  cotton  it  ranks  as  the  third  State.  In  the  production  of  sugar  it 
ranks  next  to  Louisiana.  Indian-corn  is  the  chief  cereal ;  but  wheat  and 
other  small  grains  grow  finely  in  the  northern  part.  Sweet-potatoes  are  a 
great  crop,  and  a  good  article  of  tobacco  is  grown.  Oranges  and  other  semi- 
tropical  fruits  thrive  well  along  the  coast. 

Stock-Raising.  —  Texas  raises  more  beef-cattle  than  any  other  State,  hav- 
ing, by  the  census  of  1870,  over  three  million  head.  Immense  stock-ranches, 
having  herds  of  several  thousand  cattle  and  horses,  are  common  in  this  State. 
Great  attention  is  given  to  sheep-raising. 

Commerce.  —  The  trade  of  tliis  State  consists  in  the  export  of  cotton,  hides, 
and  live-stock,  and  in  the  importation  of  manufactured  articles.  Beef-cattle 
are  driven  in  large  herds  northward  to  the  line  of  the  Kansas  Pacific  Rail- 
road, and  shipped  to  Chicago  and  the  Eastern  cities.  They  are  also  shipped 
from  Galveston  to  other  States,  and  to  the  West  Indies. 

Resources.  —  In  addition  to  the  interests  already  developed,  this  State  has 
many  other  resources,  and  vast  capabilities  of  future  growth.  There  is  an 
abundance  of  most  valuable  timber,  and  great  deposits  of  coal,  iron,  salt,  and 
other  useful  minerals.  These  attractions  draw  a  superior  class  of  emigrants 
from  other  States,  as  also  from  Germany  and  other  European  coimtries. 

Education.  —  The  free-school  system  of  this  State  is  in  a  flourishing  con- 
dition. It  has  a  large  school  fund,  derived  from  the  sale  of  its  public  lands. 
Private  schools,  academies,  and  colleges  are  quite  niuuerous,  and  afford  ample 
opportunities  for  obtaining  a  good  education. 

History.  —  Texas,  originally  a  part  of  the  Spanish  American  possessions, 
became  a  province  of  Mexico  in  1821.  A  large  American  immigration  then 
took  place  ;  a  few  years  later  the  people  declared  their  independence,  and  in 
1836  Texas  became  an  independent  republic.  Subsequently,  in  1845,  Texas 
on  its  application  was  admitted  into  the  Union. 

Cities.  —  The  principal  towns  not  already  described  are  Sherman,  Den- 
nison,  and  Fort  Worth,  in  Northern  Texas  ;  Marshall  and  Jefferson  in 
Northeastern  Texas,  and  Waco  in  the  central  part,  on  the  Brazos.  Browns- 
vUle,  on  the  Rio  Grande,  has  a  large  trade  with  Mexico.  Indianola  and 
Corpus  Christi  are  seaport  towns,  with  an  extensive  coast  and  interior  trade. 


I  *»^  > 


THE    DAKOTAS    AND    INDIAN   TERRITORY. 

SOUTH    DAKOTA. 

1.  Description.  —  South  Dakota  is  a  large  State,  level  or  rolling  in  the 
eastern  part  and  hilly  and  mountainous  in  the  western. 

2.  Resources.  —  The  State  posseses  a  pleasant  climate,  very  rich  8oil> 
and  very  productive  mines  of  gold. 

3.  The  leading  industries  are  agriculture,  in  which  most  of  the  inhab- 
itants are  engaged ;  stock-raising  and  gold-mining. 

4.  Cities.  —  Sioux  Falls,  Yankton,  Huron,  Mitchell,  Aberdeen, 
Chamberlain,  and  Pierre  are  the  leading  cities  and  towns. 

NORTH    DAKOTA. 

1.  Description.  —  North  Dakota  borders  on  the  Dominion  of  Canada. 
In  surface  it  is  similar  to  South  Dakota. 

2.  Resources.  —  The  State  has  vast  plains  of  fertile  lands,  possessing  the 
richest  of  soils. 

3.  The  leading  industry  is  agriculture,  some  of  the  farms  being  the 
most  extensive  in  the  country. 

4.  Cities.  —  The  leading  towns  are  Bismarck,  the  capital.  Grand 
Forks,  Fargo,  Watertown,  and  Pembina. 

INDIAN    TERRITORY. 

1.  The  Indian  Territory  is  a  section  of  country  set  apart  by  the  Govern- 
ment of  the  United  States  for  the  home  of  various  peaceable  tribes  of 
Indians.     It  has  no  organized  government. 

2.  The  Indians  living  on  the  reservations  in  the  Territoiy  are  partly 
civilized.  Some  of  them  till  the  soil,  raise  herds  of  horses  and  cattle,  and 
have  books  printed  in  the  Indian  language. 


^ 


72 


THE  PLAINS  AND   ROCKY   MOUNTAIN  REGION. 


KANSAS. 

L  Physical  Features.  —  Kan- 
sas is  a  beautiful  undulating 
plain,  sloping  from  the  eastern 
border  of  Colorado  to  the  Mis- 
souri River  and  the  State  of 
Missouri. 

2.  Resources.  —  A  fertile  soU, 
abundant  pasturage  for  stock, 
rich  deposits  of  coal,  and  ready- 
means  of  communication,  are 
the  chief  resources  of  this  State. 

3.  The  leading  industries  are 
(1)  agriculture  in  the  eastern 
section,  and  (2)  stock-raising 
on  the  great  grassy  prairies  to 
the  west. 

4.  Cities. — Leavenwoeth,  the 
largest  city,  is  an  important  commercial 
and  the  seat  of  a  State  Normal  School. 


SCENE    ON    THE    MISSOURI    RIVER. 


and  manufacturing  center, 
ToPEKA.  is  the  capital. 


SFECIAI.  GEOGRAPHir  FOR  KANSAS   CLASSES. 

53^  Kansas  classes  should  now  make  a  full  study  of  the  geography  of  their  State,  following  the 

Outline  on  page  30. 

Area,  82.080  square  miles.    Population  (census  of  1880),  096,096. 

Outline  and  Extent.  —  Kansas  is  in  form  a  parallelogram.  Its  length 
from  east  to  west  (400  miles)  is  about  twice  its  width. 

Physical  Features.  —  The  broad,  undulating  surface  is  unbroken  hy 
mountains,  though  the  Flint  Hills  cross  the  center  from  north  to  south,  and 
there  is  a  gentle  swell  towards  the  western  part.  The  eastern  section  is 
prairie-land  proper,  and  of  great  fertility  ;  the  western  section  partakes  more 
of  the  characteristics  of  "  the  Plains." 

While  there  are  no  large  forests,  there  are  belts  of  different  varieties  of 
timber  along  the  streams.  The  climate  is  dry  and  healthful  and  the  winters 
are  short  and  mild. 

River  System.  —  The  Missouri  forms  the  northeastern  boundary,  and  the 
Arkansas  flows  through  the  State  for  several  hundred  miles. 

The  principal  river  belonging  to  this  State  is  the  Kansas  or  Kaw  River,  formed 
by  the  confluence  of  the  Republican  and  Smoky  Hill  rivers  near  Junction  City. 
The  Smoky  Hill  receives  the  Saline  and  Solomons  forks.  The  Kansas  re- 
ceives on  the  north,  at  Manhattan,  the  Big  Blue,  and  at  Perryville,  the  Grass- 
hopper.   On  the  south  it  receives,  near  Lawrence,  the  Wakarusa. 

Other  important  streams  are  the  Marais  des  Cygnes  River,  or  River  of  Swans, 
Spring  River  and  Neosho,  Cottonwood,  Verdigris,  Walnut,  Whitewater,  Little 
Arkansas,  Pawnee  Fork,  Sha-kus'ka,  Nin-ne'sah,  or  Good  River,  Cow-Skin, 
Cimarron,  Medicine  Lodge,  and  Nes-cu-tun'ga  rivers. 

Agriculture  and  Grazing.  —  Nature  has  admirably  adapted  this  State  to 
agriculture  and  grazing,  and  these  are  the  two  leading  industries. 

The  chief  farm-products  of  the  eastern  section  are  wheat,  com,  oats,  rye, 
barley,  sorghum,  cheese,  butter,  turnips,  potatoes,  and  fruits. 

The  prairies  are  covered  with  a  variety  of  nutritious  grasses,  which  last  all 
winter,  drying  into  hay  on  the  ground,  and  supporting  vast  herds  of  beef- 
cattle,  which  require  no  housing. 

IVIinerals.  —  Very  beautiful  limestone  is  quarried  in  the  Flint  Hills. 
There  are  large  deposits  of  coal  in  the  eastern,  and  of  salt  in  the  western  part 
of  the  State. 

Education.  —  The  State  has  established  a  good  system  of  public  schools. 
The  educational  institutions  are  located  as  follows  :  —  the  State  University  at 
Lawrence,  the  Agricultural  College  at  Manhattan,  and  normal  schools  at 
Emporia,  Leavenworth,  and  Concordia. 

History. —  Kansas  first  came  prominently  into  notice  in  1854,  when  a  law 
was  passed  organizing  the  Kansas-Nebraska  Territory,  and  leaving  to  "popu- 
lar sovereignty "  the  question  whether  it  should  be  a  Free  or  a  Slave  State. 
The  friends  of  both  sides  poured  into  this  Territory,  and  for  several  years  its 


NEBRASKA. 

L  Physical  Features.  —  Ne- 
braska, nke  Kansas,  is  an  undu- 
lating plain,  sloping  from  the 
foothills  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains to  the  Missouri  River. 
The  most  striking  physical 
feature  is  the  broad  and  fertile 
valley  of  the  Platte. 

2.  The  leading  industries  are 
(1)  agriculture,  carried  on  in 
the  rich  bottom-lands  of  the 
rivers,  and  (2)  stock-raising,  for 
which  the  western  section  is 
admirably  adapted. 

3.  Cities.  —  Omaha  is  the 
largest  city  and  commercial 
center      A  fine    iron  railroad 

bridge,  which  spans  the  Missouri  River  at  this  point,  connects  it 
with  Council  Bluffs,  Iowa.     Lincoln  is  the  capital. 


soil  was  the  scene  of  lawlessness  and  bloodshed  ;  but  the  Antislavery  party 
triumphed,  and  Kansas  was  admitted  as  a  Free  State,  January  30,  1861. 

Cities.  —  In  addition  to  Leavenworth  and  Topeka  the  principal  cities  are  : 
Lawrence,  a  railroad  and  trading  center  on  the  Kansas  River ;  Atchison, 
a  thriving  city  on  the  Missouri ;  and  Fort  Scott,  the  center  of  a  coal-mining 
and  of  an  agricultural  and  grazing  district. 

t^'  state  the  location  and  anything  known  regarding  the  following  places  :  — 

Wyandotte. 

Ottawa. 

Emporia. 


Manhattan. 

Baxter  Springs. 

Burlingame. 
Hiawatha 

Grasshopper  Falls. 

Paola. 

Oamett 

Junction  City. 

Olathe. 

Oswego. 

Osage  Mission. 

SPECIAIi  GEOORAPH'Sr  FOR  NEBRASKA  CLASSES. 

^^  Nebraska  classes  should  now  make  a  full  study  of  the  geography  of  their  State,  following  the 

Outline  on  page  30. 

Area,  76,855  square  miles.    Population  (census  of  1880),  452.402. 

Outline.  —  Nebraska  is  an  irregular  oblong,  its  length  from  east  to  west 
being  about  twice  its  width. 

Surface.  —  With  the  exception  of  the  natural  undvdations  of  the  Plains  the 
only  elevations  are  the  sand-hills  in  the  northwestern  part.  The  eastern  sec- 
tion consists  of  fine  farming  lands  ;  the  western,  of  grassy  plains. 

River  System.  —  The  Missouri  forms  the  northeastern  and  eastern  boun- 
dary, and  the  Platte  River  with  its  numerous  branches  flows  through  the  State 
from  west  to  east,  entering  the  Missouri  near  Plattsmouth. 

Industries.  —  The  raising  of  com,  wheat,  and  other  cereals,  and  fruit-grow- 
ing are  carried  on  with  great  success  in  the  eastern  section  ;  beef-cattle  and 
other  live-stock  are  raised  in  great  numbers  in  the  western  grazing  regions. 
The  cheap  and  fertile  lands,  together  with  the  ready  means  of  communication, 
ofi'er  great  inducements  for  settlement  to  emigrants. 

Communications.  —  The  Union  Pacific  Railroad  traverses  this  State  from 
east  to  west,  thus  bringing  the  inhabitants  in  easy  communication  both  with 
the  Eastern  railroad  system  and  with  San  Francisco. 

Education.  —  The  advantages  of  public -school  education  are  well  under- 
stood in  Nebraska,  and  the  public  schools  are  liberally  provided  for.  The 
State  University  is  at  Lincoln,  and  the  State  Normal  School  at  Peru. 

History.  —  Nebraska,  originally  a  part  of  the  Louisiana  purchase,  was, 
jointly  with  Kansas,  organized  into  a  Territory  in  1854.  When  Kansas  became 
a  State  in  1861,  Nebraska  remained  for  some  years  a  Territory,  but  finally 
was  admitted  into  the  Union  in  1867.  The  name  is  made  up  of  two  Indian 
words,  meaning  water-valley. 

Cities.  —  Nebraska  City,  on  the  Missouri  River,  is  an  important  city; 
Plattsmouth  ships  grain  and  stock,  and  manufactures  agricultural  imple- 
ments ;  Fremont,  on  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad,  is  an  important  trading  point, 
with  several  railroad  connections. 


COLORADO  AND  THE  ROCKY  MOUNTAIN  REGION. 


73 


COLORADO. 

L  Physical  Features. — Colo- 
rado, which  became  a  State  in 
1876,  is  divided  by  the  Rocky 
Mountains  into  the  eastern 
section,  which  resembles  Kan- 
sas, and  the  western  section, 
which  is  a  mountain-plateau 
region. 

2.  Advantages.  —  Colorado 
--has  rich  deposits  of  gold  and 

silver,  much  good  agricultural 
land,  and  a  large  amount  of 
pasturage. 

3.  The  leading  industries  are 
gold-mining,  largely  carried  on 

in  the  mountains,  and  grazing  and  agriculture  in  the  eastern  section. 
4.  Denver  is  the  capital  and  largest  city :  it  is  connected  by  rail- 
road with  the  Kansas  Pacific  and  with  the  Union  Pacific  railroads, 
and  is  the  center  of  trade  for  an  extensive  region  of  country.  Cen- 
tral City  ranks  next  in  population. 

FOR   COLORADO   CLASSES. 

I.  Arka,  103,925  square  miles.  The  population  by  the  census  of  1880  was  194,327. 
Tlie  .State  forms  nearly  o  parallelogram  ;  average  length,  east  and  west,  380  miles  ; 
breadth,  north  and  south,  280  miles. 

II.  The  State  is  intersected  north  and  south  near  the  center  by  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, which  here  attain  their  greatest  elevation.  From  Mount  Lincoln  are  visible 
200  peaks  nearly  13,000  feet  high,  and  about  25  of  14,000  or  over.  The  eastern 
range  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  are  called  the  Front  or  Colorado  range  ;  si.x  of  its 
peaks  are  from  14,000  to  14,200  feet  above  the  sea,  viz. :  Long's  Peak,  Mount  Torrey, 
Gray's  Peak,  Mount  Rosa,  Mount  Evans,  and  Pike's  Peak.  West  of  this  range,  and 
between  it  and  Park  range,  are  North,  Middle,  and  South  parks.  These  are  extensive 
irregular  plateaus  or  basins,  shut  in  on  each  side  by  lofty  mountain-ranges.  The  val- 
leys in  the  parks  are  clothed  with  luxuriant  grasses  and  flowering-plants,  and  the  soil 
is  exceedingly  fertile. 

III.  The  river  system  of  Colorado  embraces  the  principal  tributaries  of  the  Rio 
Colorado,  Rio  Grande,  Arkansas,  Platte,  and  the  Smoky  Hill  and  Republican  forks 
of  the  Kansas. 

IV.  Vast  deposits  of  useful  minerals  of  almost  every  kind  occur  in  nearly  every 
part  of  the  State.  The  most  important  are  gold  and  silver,  which  are  found  in  large 
quantities  in  a  belt  about  50  miles  wide,  stretching  north  and  south  across  the  cen- 
tral portion  of  the  State.  From  1858  to  1872  the  amount  of  gold  produced  was  over 
$60,000,000.  Coal,  copper,  and  iron-pyrites  abound.  The  State  has  many  valuable 
salt,  soda,  and  sulphur  springs. 

V.  About  one  third  of  the  State  is  good  agricultural  land.  In  the  plains  and  the 
parks  the  soil  of  the  valleys  is  particularly  fertile,  and  yields  rich  harvests  of  all  the 
grains  and  fruits.  As  a  grazing  and  dairy  country  Colorado  excels,  deriving  peculiar 
advantages  from  its  nutritious  grasses,  upon  which  cattle  thrive  the  whole  year. 

OT"  state  the  location  of  the  following  cltiea  and  towns  :  — 

Leadville.  Pueblo.  Trinidad.  Kit  Canon.  Canon  City. 

Owrgetown.         Oolden  City.        Oreeley.  Boulder  City.       Colorado  City. 


MONTANA. 


3.  Description.  —  Montana  is  divided  into  two  sections,  —  the 
eastern  sloiHi  belonging  to  the  Missouri  valley,  and  the  western 
part,  which  is  a  mountainous  region  traversed  by  the  maui  ridge 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  their  numerous  spurs. 

2.  Resources.  —  The  gold  mines  are  extensively  worked,  and  the 
mounUin  pastures  offer  great  advantages  for  stock-raising. 

3.  Towns.  —  Helena  is  the  principal  trading-town,  and  the 
capital 


INDIAN   Lire  IN  THE  ROCKY  MOUNTAINS. 


THE   ROCKY    MOUNTAIN   TERRITORIES. 

NEW   MEXICO. 

1.  Description.  —  New  Mexico  is  a  Mountain-Plateau  region, 
crossed  by  various  parallel  ranges  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  system. 
The  eastern  half  of  the  Territory  belongs  to  the  Texas  slope,  and 
is  a  continuation  of  the  Llaiw  Estaca'do.  The  great  valley  of  the 
Rio  Grande  traverses  the  territory.  The  elevation  of  its  surface 
gives  New  Mexico  a  temperate  climate. 

2.  Agriculture.  —  The  valley  of  the  Rio  Grande  is  the  most 
fertile  part,  and  the  soil  here  is  successfully  tilled;  but  as  very 
little  rain  falls,  crops  are  raised  wholly  by  irrigation.  Mucli  of  the 
country  is  finely  adapted  to  stock-raising,  and  this  constitutes 
the  chief  occupation  of  the  inhabitants. 

3.  Minerals  — Gold,  silver,  and  copper  are  abundant;  but  the 
mines  have  not  been  developed  to  any  great  extent. 

4.  Inhabitants.  —  Indians  and  Mexicans  constitute  the  bulk  of 
the  population ;  in  addition,  there  are  a  few  thousand  settlers  from 
different  parts  of  the  Union. 

5.  Towns.  —  Santa  Fe,  the  capital  city,  is  the  central  point  in  the 
wagon-train  route  from  north  to  south.  Albuquerque,  Taos  [tah'oce] 
andMESiL'LA  in  the  valley  of  the  Rio  Grande  are  small  settlements. 

WYOMING. 

1.  Description.  —  Wyoming  is  an  elevated  Plateau  and  Mountain 
region  traversed  by  the  main  axis  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

2  Resources.  —  Extensive  coal-beds  are  found  in  the  Green  River 
region ;  tliere  are  productive  gold  mines  in  the  Sweetwater  district, 
and  the  elevated  plains  afford  fine  pasturage  for  stock. 

3.  The  leading  Industries  are  stock-raising  and  mining  for  coal 
and  gold. 

4.  Towns.  —  Cheyenne  [s/tt-en'],  the  capital,  is  an  important 
railroad  center,  and  the  distributing  point  for  goods  to  all  parts  of 
the  section  north  and  south.  Sherman  Station  (8,000  feet)  is  the 
highest  point  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  crossed  by  the  Pacific  Railroad. 


74 


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THE  PACIFIC   STATES  AND  TERRITORIES. 


75 


THE    PACIFIC    STATES    AND    TERRITORIES, 


ORCAT   SALT   LAKE. 


INTRODUCTION. 

1.  Situation.  —  This  section  includes  the  greater  part  of  the 
United  Stixtes  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

2.  States  and  Territories.  —  The  States  are  California,  Nevada, 
Oregon,  and  Washington.  The  Territories  are  Utah,  Arizona,  and 
Idaho,  together  with  Alaska. 

3.  Size  and  Population.  —  This  section  comprises  one  fifth  of  the 
area,  but  contains  only  one  fortieth  of  the  population,  of  our  country. 

4.  The  Mountains.  —  The  main  chains  of  the  Rocky  Mountains 
are  in  the  eastern  part  of  this  section.  The  Sierra  Nevada  Moun- 
tains, witli  the  Ciiscaile  Range,  are  in  the  western  part. 

5.  The  Plateau.  —  The  greater  part  of  this  section  consists  of  the 
Pacific  Plateau.  This  table-land  has  an  elevation  of  from  4,000  to 
8,000  feet,  and  is  about  800  miles  wide  in  the  middle  part. 

The  Walisatch  Mountains,  a  cross  range  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tain system,  divides  the  plateau  into  two  parts :  the  elevated 
plateau-basin  of  the  Colorado  River,  from  7,000  to  8,000  feet  high, 
and  the  "  Great  Basin  "  of  Utah,  from  4,000  to  6,000  feet  high. 

On  the  nortli  the  Great  Basin  slopes  down  to  the  Basin  of  the 
Columbia,  witli  a  general  height  of  about  2,000  feet 

&  Bivers  and  Lakes.  —  The  great  rivers  of  this  section  are  the 
Columbia,  Sacramento,  San  Joaquin,  and  Colorado.  All  of  these  flow 
into  the  Pacific  Ocean  or  its  arms.  The  inland  waters  of  the  Great 
Basin  flow  into  lakes  that  have  no  outlet,  or  sink  into  the  sterile  soil. 

The  principal  lakes  of  the  Great  Biisin  are  Great  Salt  Lake,  Utah 
Lake,  and  Pyramid,  Carson,  Walker,  Soda,  and  Owens  lakes. 
Most  of  these  Ixxlies  of  water  have  no  outlet,  and  hence  are  salt. 

7.  Sea-coast  —  E.xclusive  of  Alaska,  this  section  has  a  coast 
line  of  about  one  thousand  miles.  Good  harbors,  however,  are 
not  numerou.s.     The  most  important  is  that  of  San  Francisco. 

8.  Climate.  —  This  section  presents  two  distinct  climates,  — 
that  of  the  Plateau  and  that  of  the  Pacific  coast 

The  Plateau  region  is,  owing  to  its  elevation,  considerably 
colder  than  the  Atlantic  coast  or  Mississippi  Valley  in  tlie  same 
latitudes.     It  is  also   noted   for   its   dryness,  many  parts  being 


almost  entirely  rainless.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  rain- 
clouds  are  deprived  of  their  moisture  by  the  lofty  mountain-ranges 
which  form  the  eastern  and  western  flanks  of  the  Pacific  Plateau. 
Most  of  this  region  is  an  arid  desert  covered  with  sage-bnish. 

The  Pacific  slope,  including  the  region  to  the  west  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada  and  Cascade  ranges,  has  a  climate  unlike  that  of  any  other 
part  of  our  country.  There  are  but  two  seasons,  the  rainy  season 
(winter)  and  the  dry  season  (summer). 

9.  Resources.  —  This  section  is  the  richest  metalliferous  reaion  on 
the  glolxj.  Gold,  silver,  quicksilver,  coal,  and  many  other  minoi'als 
abound.  The  forests  of  California,  Oregon,  and  Washington  affonl 
an  exhaustless  supply  of  the  finest  timber.  Tlie  river  valleys,  espe- 
cially in  California  and  Oregon,  are  of  great  fertility,  and  excellent 
pasturage  is  found.     The  Pacific  Ocean  facilitates  commerce. 

10,  Indnstriea  —  Mining  is  carried  on  in  most  of  the  States  and 
Territories,  and  is  the  most  general  occupation ;  agricidture  and 
stock-raising  are  greatly  followed ;  the  lumlxjr  interest  is  large. 


MAP  STUDIES. 
California.  —  1.  What  abbreviation  is  used  !  Aim.  Cal.  2.  What  parallel  fonna 
th(!  iioithein  boundary  ?  3.  Measure  by  the  scale  of  miles  the  length  of  the  Cal. 
coast.  4.  In  what  latitude  is  San  Francisco  Bay  ?  5.  What  bay  .south  of  San 
Francisco  IJay  ?  6.  Name  three  capes.  7.  WHiat  mountain-chain  in  the  eastern 
part  ?  8.  Where  is  Mount  Shasta  ?  —  Mount  Whitney  ?  9.  Wu-re  is  Yosemitc  Val- 
ley ?  10.  Describe  the  Coast  Range.  11.  Name  and  describe  the  princiiml  rivers 
of  Cnl.  12.  Where  is  Tulare  Ijike  ?  —  Uke  Tahoe  ?  13.  Where  is  the  capital  ? 
14.  Where  is  San  Fnmcisco  ?  —  Oakland  ?  —  Stockton  ?  —  San  Jose  ?  —  Los  Angi-les  ? 
—  San  Diego  ? 

Nevada. — 1.  What  abbreviation  is  used  if  Aru.  Nev.  2.  What  parallel  and 
meridians  form  the  northern,  eastern,  and  western  boundaries  1  3.  What  State  on 
the  southwest?  4.  What  is  the  general  character  of  tlie  surface?  6.  Name  some 
mountain-ranges.  6.  In  wiiat  direction  do  they  extend?  7.  What  is  the  principal 
river  of  the  StJiti'?  8.  Into  what  do  most  of  the  stnams  flow?  9.  Wliere  is 
Pyramid  Lake  ?  10.  Name  two  other  lakes.  11.  In  what  direction  do<-s  the  Cen- 
tral Pacific  Railroad  traverse  the  State  ?  12.  Where  is  Vii^ginia  City  ?  —  Carson  ?  — 
Austin?  — Elko? 

Oregon. —  1.  What  abbreviation  is  usihII  Atm.  Or.  2.  What  parallel  forni.H 
the  suulUcni  buundary  '  3.  What  natural  boundary  west '  What  Statu 
north?  —  east?  6.  What  cape  in  the  southwestern  part  ?  6.  What  is  the  princijial 
mountain-range  7  7.  Wlierc  is  Mt.  Hoixi  ?  —  Mt.  Jeflerson  ?  8.  What  rivers  form 
partial  boundaries?  9.  Describe  the  cliicf  tributary  of  the  Columbia.  10.  What 
is  the  capital  ?    11.  Where  is  Portland  ? 


76 


THE  PACIFIC   STATES  AND   TEEEITORIES. 


CALIFORNIA. 

1  Its  Bank.  —  California  ranks  as  the  wealthiest  and  most 
populous  of  the  Pacific  States.  It  is,  next  to  Texas,  the  largest 
State  in  the  Union, 

2.  Physical  Features.  —  This  State  may  be  divided  into  four 
sections  :  (1)  the  mountain-region  of  the  Sierra  Nevada ;  (2)  the 
desert  plateau-region  east  of  that  range;  (3)  the  fertile  valley- 
region  between  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  the  Coast  Eange  mountains; 
and  (4)  the  narrow  coast-belt  bordering  on  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

The  climate  is  semi-tropical,  and  there  are  only  two  seasons,  — 
the  rainy  and  the  dry. 

3.  Scenery.  —  California  is  famed  for  its  grand  and  striking  nat- 
ural features.  Among  these  are  the  Yosemite  [yo-scm'i-ty]  VaUey 
and  Falls,  the  Big  Tree  Groves,  Lake  TaTioe,  and  the  Geysers. 


BFBCIAIi  G-EOGRAFH'Sr  FOR  CALIFORNIA  CIiASSES. 

t^~  California  classes  should  now  make  a  full  study  of  the  geography  of  their  StatCj  following  the 

Outline  on  page  30. 

Area,  158,360  square  miles.    Population  (census  of  1880),  864,694. 

Outline  and  Extent.  —  California  is  an  irregular  oblong,  its  length  being 
about  three  times  its  breadth.  Its  length  from  north  to  south  is  750  miles ; 
its  bre;idth  from  east  to  west  is  250  miles. 

Surface.  —  As  a  whole,  California  is  a  mountainous  State. 

The  Sierra  Nevada,  which  has  a  breadth  of  from  30  to  60  miles,  extends  the 
entire  length  of  the  State.  It  is  the  highest  and  most  distinctly  marked  range 
in  the  United  States.  Its  loftiest  peaks  are  Mt.  Whitney  (14,887  feet),  with 
several  surrounding  peaks  over  14,000  feet  high,  and  Mt.  Shasta  (14,440  feet). 
The  momitains  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  Bange  are  exceedingly  wild  and  rugged, 
and  are  covered  with  heavy  forests,  principally  of  pine. 

The  Coast  Eange,  which  is  less  elevated  than  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains, 
stretches  in  broken  spurs  along  the  Pacific  coast  parallel  to  the  latter  range, 
except  in  the  northern  and  southern  parts  of  the  State,  where  the  two  ranges 
are  united  in  one. 

The  fjreat  valleys  of  the  Slate  —  the  Sacramento,  the  San  Joaquin  [wa-keen'], 
and  the  Tulare  Itoo-lah'nj']  —  lie  between  these  mountain-ranges.  Along  the 
Pacific  there  are  narrow  belts  of  lowland  and  numerous  small  valleys  opening 
towanls  the  ocean. 

The  desert  region  includes  all  that  part  of  the  State  which  lies  east  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada  Mountains. 

River  System.  —  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Sacramento,  which  is  350  miles 
long,  and  is  navigable  to  Red  Bluff,  295  miles ;  and  the  San  Joaquin,  which  is 


'j^yaj^Mi/cjuuf'/a. 


i.  Advantages.  —  This  State  is  highly  favored  by  nature.  It  is 
rich  in  gold,  quicksilver,  coal,  and  other  minerals.  Its  fertile  soil 
and  favorable  climate  adapt  it  to  the  production  of  the  grains  and 
fruits  both  of  the  temperate  and  semi-tropical  climes.  Its  water- 
front on  the  Pacific  Ocean  gives  it  command  of  the  trade  with  the 
Orient. 

5.  The  leading  indnstries  are  agriculture,  stock-raising,  mining, 
and  manufacturing.  California  is  the  leading  State  in  the  export 
of  wheat,  gold,  quicksilver,  wool,  and  wine.  The  orange,  lemon, 
fig,  oUve,  and  almond  are  cultivated  in  the  central  and  the  south- 
ern parts. 

6.  Cities.  —  San  Francisco  is  the  commercial  emporium  of  the 
whole  western  coast  of  North  America,  and  has  a  large  trade  with 
China,  Japan,  India,  Australia,  the  Sandwich  Islands,  and  other 
islands  of  the  Pacific.  It  is  the  chief  manufacturing  city  of  the 
Pacific  coast.     Sacramento  is  the  capital 


350  miles  long,  and  is  navigable  to  Stockton,  120  miles.  These  two  rivers 
drain  the  two  great  valleys  of  the  same  names,  and  flow  into  Suisun  [soo-soon'] 
Bay,  —  a  continuation  of  the  Bay  of  San  Francisco. 

The  chief  tributaries  of  the  Sacramento  are  the  American,  the  Yuba,  and 
the  Feather  rivers,  all  of  which  flow  from  the  gold-bearing  slopes  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada  Mountains  ;  of  the  San  Joaquin  are  the  Cosum'nes,  Mokel'umne, 
Calave'ras,  Stan'islaus,  Tuol'umne,  Merced',  Maripo'sa,  Fres'no,  Kings,  and 
Kern,  all  from  the  western  slopes  of  the  Sierra  Nevada. 

The  other  considerable  rivers  flowing  directly  into  the  Pacific  are  the  Klam'ath, 
Eel,  Russian,  and  Salinas  [sa-lee'nas]. 

The  rivers  of  the  plateau  section  are  Owens  River,  which  flows  iuto  Owens 
Lake  (salt) ;  Mohave  \mo-ha}i'vy\  River,  which  flows  into  Soda  Lake  (salt) ;  and 
the  Tnickee,  wh.ich  flows  into  Pyramid  Lake  (salt),  Nevada. 

Tlie  principal  lakes  are  Tulare  Lake,  which  has  its  outlet  through  the  San 
Joaquin  River,  and  Lake  Tahoe,  drained  by  the  Truckee  River. 

Climate.  —  Although  the  greater  part  of  California  lies  in  the  same  latitude 
as  Pennsylvania,  Virginia,  and  North  Carolina,  its  climate  is  so  modified  by 
the  warm  -sviiids  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  and  by  the  protection  of  momitain-chains 
to  the  north,  that  its  climate,  except  in  the  high  mountain-regions,  is  sub-trop- 
ical. There  are  two  season.s,  the  wet  and  the  dry,  and  snow  faUs  only  in  the 
high  mountains.  In  the  coast-valleys  the  climate  is  remarkably  mild  and 
uniform  ;  in  the  interior  valleys  the  dry  season  is  very  hot  and  the  rainy  sea- 
son colder  than  on  the  coast ;  in  the  mountains  the  winters  are  cold  and  snow 
falls  to  a  great  depth. 

Soil.  —  The  soil  of  the  valley  lands  and  of  the  narrow  coast-belt  along 
the  ocean  is  a  deep,  rich  loam,  exceedingly  productive  and  easily  cultivated. 
Along  the  banks  of  the  Sacramento  and  the  San  Joaquin  rivers  there  are  vast 


CALIFORNIA  AND   NEVADA 


77 


Special  G«ograph7  of  CaL  eontinned.] 

trocU  of  marsh-laiids  snbject  to  overflow.    These  tracts,  known  as  "  ttiU  lands," 

become  very  productive,  when  reclaimed  and  protected  by  levees. 

Acrtcnltore.  —  The  agricultural  resources  are  exceedingly  varied. 

The  CereaU.  —  In  wheat-raising  it  is  one  of  the  foremost  States.  Barley  and 
oats  are  important  crops. 

Vegetables,  as  potatoes,  beets,  cabbages,  cauliflowers,  etc.,  grow  to  great  size 
and  perfection. 

7%«  culture  of  tobacco  is  favored  by  the  soil  and  climate,  and  cotton  thrives  in 
the  San  Joa;juin  valley. 

In  the  culture  of  the  grape  and  the  production  of  wine  it  exceeds  any  other 
State.  The  annual  vintage  is  over  six  millions  of  gallons,  besides  great  quan- 
tities of  grape-brandy. 

Fruits.  —  In  the  central  valleys  and  along  the  Pacific  coast  south  of  the  Bay 
of  San  Francisco,  the  climate  is  favorable  to  the  growth  of  semi-tropical  fruits, 
such  as  oranges,  lemons,  figs,  olives,  and  almonds.  Apples,  pears,  plums,  cher- 
ries, and  grapes  thrive  in  all  parts  of  the  State. 

Stock-Redsing.  —  The  rolling  foot-hiUs  and  mountain-valleys  afford  fine 
<,Tazing  grounds  fur  cattle,  horses,  and  sheep  ;  stock-raising  is  an  important 
interest,  and  immense  sheep-ranches  are  common.  Tlie  climate  is  so  mild 
that  stock  are  neither  housed  nor  fed  during  the  miny  season  (winter  months). 
In  the  production  of  wool  Califoniia  is  second  only  to  Ohio. 

Mining.  —  Gold  is  the  leading  mining  product  of  California,  the  annual 
yield  being  about  twenty-five  millions  of  dollars. 

The  gold  region  lies  chiefly  on  the  western  slope  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  Moun- 
tains, along  the  tributaries  of  the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  rivers. 

The  gold  is  obtained  chiefly  from  "  quartz  mines  "  by  crushing  gold-bearing 
quartz  rock,  and  from  hydraulic  mines  or  "  hill  diggings,"  in  which  the  earth  is 
washed  away  by  streams  of  water  forced  by  heavy  pressure  through  strong 
hose-pipe. 

Of  cinnabar,  or  quicksilver  ore,  rich  deposits  are  found  in  the  Coast  Kange, 
and  the  mine  at  New  ^Jmaden'  is  one  of  the  richest  in  the  world. 

The  State  also  has  mines  of  silver,  copper,  iron,  and  tin  ;  hut  they  are  not  as 
yet  extensively  worked.    Coal  is  mined  to  a  considerable  extent. 

Manufactures. —  The  available  water-power  of  this  State  is  small,  and 
steam-power  is  chiefly  used  to  run  the  machinery  of  mills.  The  manufactur- 
ing interests,  though  as  yet  comparatively  new,  are  growing.  The  leading 
articles  of  home  manufactm*  are  iron  machinery,  flour,  woolen  goods,  sawed 
lumber,  boots  and  shoes,  and  numerous  minor  objects. 

Commerce.  —  Commerce  is  carried  on  with  the  other  States  by  means  of  the 
Pacific  Railroail,  steamship  lines  via  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  and  sailing  ves-sels 
by  way  of  Cape  Horn.  The  State  also  has  extensive  commercial  relations  with 
China,  Japan,  the  East  Indies,  Australia,  and  the  islands  of  the  Pacific 

The  leading  exports  are  wheat,  gold,  wine,  quicksilver,  and  wool.  The  value 
of  the  wheat  exported  exceeds  that  of  the  gold. 

Scenery.  —  The  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains  are  noted  for  their  snow-clad 
suinniils  and  wild  scenery.  The  Yosemite  Valley,  in  the  central  part  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada  Range,  is  a  great  cleft  or  chasm  in  the  mountains,  several  miles 
long,  with  perfiendicular  granite  walls,  from  2,000  to  4,000  feet  in  height. 
Over  one  of  these  walls,  a  small  mountain-stream  falls  a  distimce  of  l,.30O  feet. 
The  Calaveras  Big  Tree  Grove  contains  several  hundred  trees  (of  the  species 
known  as  Sequoia  gigantea),  some  of  which  are  300  feet  high,  with  a  circumfer- 
ence of  120  feet  at  the  base.    Lake  Tahoe  presents  l)eautiful  scenery. 

Education.  —  This  State  has  a  progressive  system  of  common  schools,  a 
Nonnal  School  at  San  Jose  [o-zaif],  sevend  denominational  colleges,  and  a 
flourishing  State  University  located  at  Berkeley,  near  Oakland. 

Cities.  —  In  addition  to  San  Francisco,  the  metropolis,  and  Sacramento,  the 
capital,  the  most  important  places  are  :  — 


Cities. 

Advantages  of  Location. 

Industries  and  Characteristics. 

Oakland. 

On  Son  Francisco  Bay,  oppoaite 

Place  of  suburban  nuiilence  ond  edu- 

San Pranclaca 

cational  renter. 

San  Jose. 

In  the  fertOe  Santa  Clara  Valley. 

Manufactunuf;  and  trading  center. 

Stockton. 

In  the  San  Joaquin  ralley. 

Center  of  trade 

Los  An'geles. 

In  the  fertile  souUicm  bocUod. 

The  leaiiing  plaro  In  the  vine,  orange, 
and  olive  country. 

Grass  VaUey. 

In  the  mining  region. 

Qoarts-mlnlng. 

YaUojo  l<alta^hoi 

On  San  Falilo  Bay. 

Trafiing  and  manufacturing  i>oltit  Near 
by.  at  Mate  laUnd,  Is  a  Unltml  States 
Nary-Yaid. 

ly  Pupils  may  state  the  location  and  anything  known  regarding  the  Industries  of  the  follow- 
ing places :  — 

KsrrsTille.  San  Dis'goi  Napa.  Santa  Clara.  OUroy  Sono'ma. 

Petaln'ma  Nevada.  Yisslia.  Santa  Ross.  CUoo. 


NEVADA. 


MNINQ   SOCNS  AND   PVRAMlO    LAKE. 

L  Physical  Features.  —  This  State  is  an  elevated  plateau,  with 
numerous  short  mountain-ranges.  Tlie  western  part  is  in  the  dri- 
est belt  of  land  in  the  United  States.  The  few  streams  belonging 
whoUy  to  Nevada  flow  into  salt  lakes  or  sink  into  sandy  deserts. 
Its  alkaline  plains  are  covered  with  a  scattered  growth  of  sage- 
brush, which  grows  to  the  height  of  from  two  to  four  feet 

2.  Resoiirces.  —  Nevada  is  noted  for  its  silver-mines,  which  are 
the  richest  in  the  world.  It  has  also  a  large  amount  of  pasture- 
land  that  is  excellent  for  stock-raising. 

3.  The  leading  industry  is  silver-mining.  The  mines  of  this  State 
yield  one  third  of  all  the  silver  produced  in  the  United  States. 
Stock-raising  also  is  largely  followed. 

4.  Cities.  —  Virginia  City  is  the  largest  city  and  chief  commer- 
cial center.  It  is  situated  more  than  6.000  feet  above  the  sea-leveL 
Carson  City  is  the  capital. 

FOR    NEVADA   CLASSES. 

I.  Tlio  area  of  this  State  is  110,700  stjuare  miles,  or  more  than  one  half  larger 
than  tlio  wholo  of  New  KngluuJ  ;  yet  it  has  the  smallest  {wpiilatioii  of  any  State  in 
the  Union,  the  lumihcr  of  inhabitants  by  the  census  of  1880  ixjiug  but  Ii2,2ti6. 

II.  The  plateau  of  Nevada  has  a  mean  height  of  alwiit  4,000  feet  It  is  traversed 
by  nearly  parallel  ranges  of  mountains,  rising  from  1,600  to  8,000  feet  higher,  having 
/■inerally  a  north  and  .south  direction,  and  separated  by  valleys  from  5  to  20  miles 
in  width.  Little  rain  fall.s  and  irrigation  is  generally  neces.sary  to  ngricnlturo.  Tlve 
reason  of  the  dryness  of  the  climate  is  Inxuiuso  nearly  all  the  moisture  borne  by  the 
rain-eloiids  blowing  from  the  Pacific  Ocean  is  condensed  by  tho  lofty  summits  of 
the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains. 

III.  Neviula  wius  jmrt  (if  the  extensive  territory  which  tho  United  States  actinired 
from  Mexico  by  tho  treaty  of  niia«leloui>o  Hidalgo  in  1848.  Wlieii  tho  boundaries 
of  California  were  detcnnined,  in  1849,  Neviula  formed  a  part  of  Utah  Territory, 
and  such  it  continued  until  1861,  when  it  was  formed  into  a  sejiamto  Territory.  In 
tho  mean  time,  in  1859,  immense  do|K>8its  of  silver  in  tho  Conistock  vein  were  discov- 
ered, and  so  rapid  was  tho  increase  of  tho  population  that  in  1864  Nevada  was  ad- 
mittc<l  08  a  State.  Tho  SUto  is  named  from  tho  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains,  meaning 
"snowy  range." 

IV.  In  »<ldition  to  Virginia  City  and  Carson  City,  mentioned  in  tho  main  text, 
tho  following  are  tho  most  im|iortnnt  places  :  Gold  Hill,  a  mining  town  niiil  next  to 
Virginia  City  tho  nmst  populous  place  in  tho  State  ;  Hamilton,  which  is  the  center 
of  the  Wliit4'  Tine  mining  district,  and  is  8,000  feot  almve  tho  soa-level;  EureTca, 
another  mining  town  in  ^\^lite  Pino  ;  Pioche  {per-aih'],  a  flourishing  mining  town  in 
the  Ronthcm  luirt  of  tho  State  ;  Austin,  in  the  central  part ;  and  Reno,  Wadsworth, 
Elko,  and  Winncmuc'cn,  on  tho  lino  of  tho  Central  Pacific  liailrood. 


78 


THE  PACIFIC   STATES   AND   TEEEITOEIES. 


OREGON. 


■^4< 


MOUNT    HOOD.    OREGON. 


L   Size.  —  This  State  is  as  large  as  New  York  and  Pennsylvania, 
but  is  thinly  populated. 
AiiKA,  96,030  square  miles.     Population  (1880),  174,768. 

2.  Physical  Features.  —  Oregon  is  divided  into  two  sections,  — 
the  fertile  valley  region  west  of  the  Cascade  Eange,  and  the  pla- 
teau region  to  the  east. 

Note.  —  To  the  west  of  the  Cascade  Eange  the  long  slope  down  to  the  broad  low 
valleys  of  the  Pacific  coast  is  a  region  of  great  beauty  and  fertility,  and  is  covered 
with  dense  forests  of  spruce,  cedar,  and  pine.  This  section  has  abundant  summer 
rains,  with  but  little  snow  in  winter,  though  it  lies  as  far  north  as  the  northern  limit 
of  Kew  Hampshire.  The  eastern  side  of  the  Cascade  Range  slopes  abruptly  to  the 
Rocky  Mountain  plateau,  which,  being  almost  rainless,  is  infertile  and  nearly  devoid 
of  vegetation. 

3.  The  leading  industries  are  (1)  agriculture,  to  which  the  fertile 
river- valleys  are  finely  adapted ;  (2)  stock-raising,  which  is  largely 
engaged  in ;  and  (3)  cutting  timber  from  the  immense  pine  forests 
that  cover  the  western  slopes  of  the  Cascade  Mountains. 

4.  Cities.  —  Portland,  on  the  WiUam'mette,  near  its  junction 
with  the  Columbia,  is  the  commercial  center ;  Salem  is  the  capital 

History. —  In  1788  two  trading-ships  from  Boston  under  Captains  Kendrick  and 
Gray  visited  this  coast.  The  latter  discovered  the  great  river  of  Oregon,  which  he 
named  Columbia,  in  honor  of  Captain  Kendrick's  ship.  In  1811  a  settlement,  prin- 
ciimlly  with  a  view  of  fur-trading,  was  made  by  John  Jacob  Astor  at  a  point  still  called 
Astoria.  The  British  set  up  a  claim  to  this  North  Pacific  territory,  and  the  dispute 
continued  until  1846,  when  it  was  agreed  that  the  American  possessions  should  extend 
as  far  as  the  parallel  of  49°  north  latitude.  Oregon  was  organized  as  a  Territory  in 
1848,  and  became  a  State  in  1859. 


MAP    STUDIES. 

Utah.  —  (Map,  page  74-)  !•  What  two  parallels  form  the  northern  boundary  ?  — 
what  parallel  the  southern  boundary  ?    2.  What  State  on  the  east  ?  —  on  the  west  ? 

3.  What  range  of  mountains  in  the  central  part  ?    4.  Describe  Great  Salt  Lake. 

5.  What  rivers  flow  into  it  ?    6.  What  head-streams  of  the  Colorado  flow  through 
Utah  ?     7.  Where  is  the  capital  ?  —  Pro'vo  ?  —  Corinne'  ? 

Arizona.  —  (J/a^j,  page  74.)  1.  Bound  this  Territory.  2.  What  is  the  general 
character  of  the  surface  ?  3.  Which  part  is  a  plateau  ?  4.  What  great  river 
forms  a  western  boundary  ?    5.  What  large  tributary  does  the  Colorado  here  receive  ? 

6.  Wliere  is  the  capital  ?  —  Prescott  ? 

Idaho.  —  (Map,  page  74.)  1.  What  two  Territories  east  ?  2.  What  State  and 
Territory  south  ?  3.  What  State  and  Territory  west  ?  4.  What  spur  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  in  the  central  part  ?  5.  To  wliat  great  river  are  most  of  the  streams 
tribuUiry  ?    6.  Where  is  Boise  City  V  —  Silver  City  'i 

"Washington.  —  (Jlfap  of  the  United  States,  p.  S7)  —  \.  Bound  this  State.  2. 
What  great  inbreaking  of  the  ocean  has  it  ?  3.  What  is  tlie  name  of  the  princi- 
pal mountain  range '  4.  Name  three  peaks.  5.  What  great  river  in  Washington' 
6.  State  the  location  of  Olympia,  —  Seattle,  —  Tacoma. 

Alaska.  —  (.^/«;)  of  North  America,  page  22.)  1.  What  waters  nearly  surround 
it  ?    2.  What  is  the  latitude  of  Point  Harrow  ?    3.  What  separates  it  from  Asia  ? 

4.  What  great  river  in  Alaska  ?    5.  Where  is  Sitka  ? 


WASHINGTON. 

1.  Physical  Features.  —  Washington  is  divided  by  the  Cascade 
range  into  an  Eastern  Plateau  region  and  a  western  farming  and 
lumbering  region. 

2.  Resources.  —  The  Puget  Sound  region  is  covered  with  im- 
mense pine  forests,  and  great  quantities  of  lumber  are  shipped 
from  the  mills  around  the  Sound,  which  extends  inland  one  hun- 
dred and  eighty  miles,  and  affords  great  facilities  for  commerce. 

3.  Towns.  —  Olympia  is  the  capital;  Se'attle,  Poet  Townsend, 
Tacoma,  Spokane  Falls,  and  Walla  Walla  are  tiourishin" 
places. 

THE    PACIFIC    TERRITORIES. 

UTAH. 

1.  Physical  Features.  —  Utah  is  divided  by  the  Wahsatch  Moun- 
tains into  two  nearly  equal  parts.  The  eastern  part  is  a  dry  aud 
barren  desert  that  belongs  to  the  Colorado  Plateau  basin.  The 
western  part  belongs  to  the  Great  Basin. 

2.  Resources.  —  Utah  contains  rich  veins  of  silver,  which  are 
extensively  worked.  It  also  has  large  copper  and  coal  mines. 
Agriculture  is  carried  on  principally  by  means  of  irrigation. 

3.  Cities,  —  Salt  Lake  City  is  the  capital,  and  the  commer- 
cial and  social  center  of  Utah.  It  is  laid  out  in  large  squares, 
and  streams  of  water  from  the  mountains  run  through  the  streets. 
Ogden,  Peovo,  Couinne,  and  Brigham  are  places  of  some  note. 

Note,  —  Utah  was  the  part  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  region  earliest  settled  by 
Americans.  Its  first  white  population  was  composed  of  a  religious  sect  called 
Mormons,  who,  under  the  leadership  of  Brigham  Young,  sought  refuge  in  this 
far  western  wilderness  iu  1848.    In  the  following  year  it  was  made  a  Territory. 

ARIZONA. 

1.  Physical  Features. — Arizona  includes  the  hottest  and  driest 
part  of  the  United  States.  The  northern  part  is  a  high  plateau, 
cut  through  by  the  stupendous  canon  of  the  Colorado  Eiver.  The 
southern  part  has  several  mountain  ranges  and  many  short  discon- 
nected mountains  called  "  lost  mountains." 

Note.  —  The  Colorado  River  has  worn  through  the  soft  strata  of  sandstone  a 
narrow  channel,  that  in  many  places  is  from  2,000  to  3,000  feet  deep.  The  pas- 
sage through  this  deep  and  gloomy  canon  is  exceedingly  dangerous. 

2.  Resources.  —  This  Territory  is  rich  in  mines  of  silver,  copper, 
and  other  minerals.  Many  parts  are  admirably  adapted  to  stock- 
raising,  and  the  river  bottoms  and  mountain  valleys  are  well  suited 
to  agriculture. 

3.  Cities.  —  The  chief  places  are  Phcenix,  the  capital,  and 
Prescott  and  Tucson,  important  trading-points. 

IDAHO. 

1.  Description.  —  Idaho  is  a  mountainous  country  traversed  by 
numerous  western  spurs  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  system. 

2.  The  leading  industries  are  gold-mining  and  stock-raising.  The 
gold  mines  are  found  along  the  Salmon  aud  Snake  rivers, — 
two  branches  of  the  Columbia. 

3.  Towns.  —  Boise  City  is  the  capital.  Florence  and  Silver 
City  are  mining  towns. 

ALASKA. 

The  extensive  region  of  Alaska  (area  about  577,000  square  miles)  was  bought 
from  Russia  in  1807  for  |7,200,000.  Its  forests,  fur-bearing  animals  and  seal-fish- 
eries constitute  the  chief  wealth  of  Ala-ska,  and  its  small  population  of  Aleuts 
and  Indians  are  engaged  in  hunting  and  the  fi.sheries.  A  garrison  is  stationed 
at  Sitka,  the  chief  town.    There  is  now  a  territorial  government 


TOPICAL  REVIEW  OF  THE  UNITED   STATES. 


79 


TOPICAL  REVIEW  AND  TEST  QUESTIONS  ON  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Motintalns. 


QUESTIONS  IN  TOPOGRAPHY. 

Through  what  States  do  they  extend ! 
Bocky.  White. 

Sierra  Nevada.       Green. 
Coast  and  Cascade.  Adirondack. 
.  Alleghany.  CatskilL 

In  what  Stales  are  they  ! 

Penobscot.  Susquehanna. 

Kennebec  Potomac. 

Connecticut.  James. 

Hudson.  Savannah. 

Delaware.  Altamaha. 


Atlantic  Rivers. 


Where  do  they  rise  t 

Ohio.  White. 


Branclie*  oftlie 
Mississippi. 

Illinois. 
Missouri. 

Arkansas. 
Red. 

JVhere  do  they  rise  ? 

f  Columbia. 
Pa«iflcKlve«.     |  Colorado. 

Sacramento. 
Yukoiu 

Where  are  they  ? 

Superior. 
Prindpai  Lalies.  •    Huron. 

Erie. 
Ontario. 

Michigan. 

Great  Salt. 

On  what  coast  f 

I  Massachusetts. 

Albemarle. 

Principal  Bays 
and  Sounds. 

Long  Island. 
Delaware. 

Pamlico. 
MobUe. 

Chesapeake. 

San  Francisco 

li-om  the  coast  of  what  State  ? 
(  Cod.  Fear. 

Principal  Capes.  |  Hatteras.  Sable. 


Ten  L,arse8t 
Cities. 


Ten  Second  Class 
Cities. 


I  May. 

Where  are  they  ? 
New  York. 
Philadelphia. 
Brooklyn. 
Chicago. 
Boston. 

In  what  Stale? 
Cleveland. 
Pittsburgh. 
Buffalo. 
Washington. 
Newark. 


Mendocino. 


St.  Lonis. 
Baltimore. 
CincinnatL 
San  Francisco. 
New  Orleans. 


Louisville. 
Jersey  City. 
Detroit. 
Milwaukee. 
Providence. 


Six  most  Popn-  . 
ions  States. 


Bound  each. 

New  York.  Illinois. 

Pennsylvania.  Missouri. 

Ohio.  Indiana. 


Bound  each. 
(Texas. 


Six  States  of 
LarKest  Area. 


California. 
Nevada. 


Colorada 

Oregon. 

Minnesota. 


II.    TRAVELS  AND  VOYAGES. 

tST"  To  be  answered  from  an  Outline  Map  at  the  flnt  reci- 
tation, and  trom  memory  at  tlie  second. 

L  At  what  ports  could  you  stop  on  a  sea-voyage  from 
Boston  along  the  coast  to  New  Orleans  ? 

2.  What  caj)es  would  you  pass  ? 

3.  What  great  peninsula  would  you  double  ? 

4.  Through  what  waters  would  you  pass  on  a  lake- 
voyage  from  Chicago  to  Buffalo  ? 

5.  At  what  cities  could  you  stop  on  the  trip  ? 

6.  What  cities  would  you  pass  on  a  steamer  trip  up 
the  Hudson  ? 

7.  On  a  steamboat  trip  from  New  Orleans  to  Pitts- 
burgh what  cities  would  you  pass  ? 

8.  What  States  would  you  pass  between  ? 

9.  Going  up  the  Missouri  River  what  cities  would 
you  pass  ? 

10.  What  States  and  Territories  would  you  pass 
through  or  by  ? 

11.  In  going  from  Pittsburgh  to  Dubuque  by  water 
what  States  would  you  pass?  What  cities  on  the 
way? 

12.  In  traveling  by  rail  from  Omaha  to  Utah  Territory 
what  States  and  Territories  would  you  pass  through?  — 
from  Salt  Lake  City  to  San  Francisco  ? 

13.  What  mountains  would  you  cross  in  going  from 
New  York  to  San  Francisco  ?  —  what  great  rivers  ? 
What  is  the  distance  ? 

14.  In  what  parts  of  our  country  would  you  travel 
to  find  mountain  scenery  ?  —  to  find  extensive  prairies 
and  large  navigable  rivers  ?  —  to  find  tribes  of  Indians  ? 

15.  In  what  parts  would  you  go  to  find  very  few 
cities  or  towns  ? 

16.  Where  would  you  see  the  greatest  number  of 
manufacturing  cities  and  villages  ? 

17.  Where  would  you  find  the  largest  and  most  fer- 
tile farms  ?  —  where  the  most  extensive  lumber-forests  ? 

18.  On  a  steamboat  trip,  in  summer,  up  the  Missis- 
sippi to  the  mouth  of  the  Ohio,  what  would  you  ex- 
pect to  see  growing  on  the  plantations  along  the  river  ? 
—  wliat  growing  on  the  farms  along  the  Ohio  River 
up  to  Pittsburgh? 

19.  If  you  were  to  sail  from  Southern  Florida  to 
Northern  Maine,  through  how  many  degrees  of  latitude 
would  you  pass  ? 

20.  Through  what  States  and  Territories  would  a 
wagon-train  pass  in  going  over  the  Plains  &om  St. 
Joseph  (Missouri)  to  Tucson  (Arizona)  ? 

21.  A  ship  laden  with  ice  from  Sitka  (Alaska)  would 
pass  along  the  coast  of  what  States,  or  countries,  to 
reach  San  Francisco ' 


Manufac- 
tured 
Articles. 


Minerals.  J  '™"- 
I  Gold. 


III.    PRODUCTS  AND  INDUSTRIES. 

ly  To  b«  answered  by  reference  to  the  Table  at  tlie  fbot 
of  the  page  and  the  text  on  the  several  States. 

1.  Which  are  the  five  leading  manufacturing  States  ? 
Which  three  of  these  are  Atlantic  States?  In  what 
section  are  the  other  two  States? 

2.  In  what  States  would  you  travel  to  find  places 
noted  for  any  of  the  following  ? 

Cotton  goods.       Flour. 

Woolen  goods.      Tobacco. 

Boots  and  shoes.  Agricultural  implements. 

Iron  machinery.  Pins  and  buttons. 

Iron-ware.  Yankee  notions. 

3.  What  are  the  five  leading  mining  States  ?  Which 
two  of  these  are  North  Central  States?  Which  two 
are  Pacific  States  ? 

4.  In  what  States  would  you  travel  to  find  ex- 
tensively worked  mines  of  the  following  I 

f  Coal.  Lead. 

Copper. 

Quicksilver. 
*■  Silver.  Zinc 

5.  State  from  the  Physical  Map  (page  25)  the  locality 
of  the  great  cotton-belt  of  the  United  States.  What 
are  the  five  principal  cotton  States  ?  Which  of  these 
border  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  ? 

6.  What  arc  the  five  principal  tobacco-growing  States  ? 
Is  the  tobacco  region  situated  as  far  south  as  the  cotton- 
belt  ?  Between  what  parallels  does  the  great  tobacco 
region  lie  ? 

7.  What  are  the  five  leading  wheat  States  ?  Which 
three  of  these  are  also  leading  com-giowing  States. 
By  what  channel  do  you  suppose  wheat  is 
shipped  from  the  Central  States  to  Europe  ?  What 
is  the  route  of  a  wheat-ship  from  San  Francisco  to 
LiveriKJol  ? 

8.  What  States  lead  in  the  production  of  com  t 
Draw  on  the  blackboard  an  outline  map  of  the  great 
com  region. 

9.  What  are  the  five  leading  States  in  the  production 
of  hay  and  potatoes  ?  Which  two  are  Atlantic  States  ! 
Which  three  are  North  Central  States  ? 

10.  What  are  the  five  leading  States  in  dairy- 
products  ?  Which  three  are  Atlantic  States  ?  Which 
two  are  North  Central  States  ? 

11.  In  what  States  would  you  travel  to  find  cultivated 
on  the  farms  great  quantities  of  the  following  ? 

f  Wheat.  Cotton. 

Com.  Rice. 

Potatoes.  Sugar. 

Hay.  Apples. 

Tobacco.  Peaches. 


Avricnltnral 
Products. 


PE0DUCT8  AND  INDUSTRIES  OF  STATES  IN  QROUPa 

-CENSUS  OP  1880. 

Leading  In 
HaDnfactares, 

Leading  in 
Cotton. 

Leading  in 

TolMlCCO. 

Leading  In 
Wbesu 

Leading  In 
Com. 

Leading  In 
Hay  and  Potatoes. 

Leading  in 
Dairy  Pn^ncls. 

Leading  in 
Mining. 

New  York. 

Mississippi 

Kentucky. 

Illinois* 

Illinois. 

New  York. 

New  York. 

Pennsylvania. 

Pennsylvania. 

Georgia. 

Virginia. 

Indiana. 

Iowa. 

Pennsylvania. 

Pennsylvania. 

Nevada. 

Massachusetts. 

Texas. 

Pennsylvania. 

Ohio. 

Missouri. 

Illinois. 

Ohio. 

Oliio. 

Ohio. 

Alabama. 

Ohio. 

Michigan. 

Indiana. 

Michigan. 

Illinois. 

California. 

Missouri. 

Arkansas. 

Tennessee. 

Hinneaota. 

Ohio. 

Ohio. 

Iowa. 

Michigan. 

CANADA  AND   NEWFOUNDLAND. 


81 


CANADA   AND    NEWFOUNDLAND. 


«-444,^ 


■*/>-/' v/ 


VICTORIA   TUBULAR   MIOOC   ACROSS   THE    : 


AT    MOMTRCAL. 


DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

L  The  Dominion  of  Canada  occupies  all  the  northern  part  of  the 
American  continent,  except  Alaska  and  a  part  of  Labrador.  Its 
area  is  nearly  as  great  as  that  of  the  United  States. 

The  Dominion  of  Canada  consists  of  the  provinces  of  Ontario,  Quebec,  New 
Brunswick,  Nova  Scotia,  Prince  Edward  Island,  Manitoba,  and  British  Columbia, 
together  with  the  District  of  Keewatin,  the  Northwest  Territory,  and  the  North- 
ca.st  Territory. 

2.  Govermnent  —  "  The  Dominion,"  is  a  scmi-inJependent  federa- 
tion of  British  provinces.  The  chief  executive  officer  is  the  Gov- 
ernor-General, who  is  appointed  by  the  sovereign  of  Great  Britain. 
The  Legislature,  called  the  Parliament,  consists  of  the  House  of 


Commons,  the  members  of  which  are  elected  by  the  people ;  and 
the  Senate,  whose  members  are  appointed  by  the  Governor-Gen- 
eral. 

Ottawa,  in  the  Province  of  Ontario,  is  the  capital  of  the 
Dominion. 

While  tlio  Dominion  government  regulates  all  federal  matters  (as  is  the  case  with 
the  general  government  in  our  own  country),  eacli  province  has  its  own  local  govem- 
mt'Ut,  consisting  of  a  Legislature,  elected  by  the  people,  and  a  lieutenant-governor, 
ap[)ointed  by  the  Douiiuion  government. 

3.  Commerce.  —  Canada  carries  on  an  extensive  trade  with  the 
United  States  and  England.  With  the  exception  of  these  nations, 
it  has  a  lai-ger  commercial  marine  than  any  other  country. 


MAP  STUDIES   ON   CANADA,   MP^XICO,   CENTRAL  AMERICA,   AND   THE  WEST  INDIES. 


The  Hap  StadiM  to  b«  made  in  connection  witli  the  text  on  each  couutiy. 

CANADA. 

OeneraL  —  [Map  of  NmUi  Ameriea,  page  SS.]  1.  What  ocean  bounds  Canada 
on  the  north  ?  —  on  the  east  ?  2.  What  ocean  and  Territory  on  the  west  ?  3.  What 
country  south  ?  4.  Which  part  of  the  southern  boundary  is  a  natural  boundary  ? 
5.  In  what  zone  is  most  of  Canada  situated  ?  6.  What  is  the  character  of  the 
northern  region  I  7.  What  great  internal  sea  in  Canada  ?  8.  What  is  the  largest 
island  on  the  east  coast  ?  —  on  the  west  coast  ?  9.  Name  four  large  interior  lakes. 
10.  Describe  the  Mackenzie  River  ;  —  the  Saskatchewan ;  —  the  St.  Lawrence. 


The  Eastern  Provincea.  —  [Hap  on  opposite  paye.]  1.  In  what  direction  does 
the  river  St.  Lawrence  How  ?  2.  What  lakes  does  it  drain  1  3.  Which  is  the  most 
western  of  the  Eastern  Provinces  ?  4.  What  river  forms  the  boumlary  between  the 
Provinces  of  Ontario  and  Quelle  ?  6.  On  which  four  of  the  Great  I^kes  does  the 
fonner  front  ?  6.  Ixicate  Toronto,  the  largest  city.  7.  What  lake  city  of  New 
York  and  seaport  of  Maine  are  in  nearly  the  same  latitude  as  Toronto  ?  8.  Where  is 
Hamilton  1^  Kingston  ?  —  London  ? 

1.  What  is  the  northern  boundary  of  the  Province  of  Quebec  ?  2.  What  States 
and  what  Provinces  to  the  south  ?  3.  Is  the  greater  part  of  this  Province  north  or 
south  of  the  St.  Ijiwrencc  ?  4.  What  three  tributaries  of  the  St.  Lawrence  in  this 
Province  T  6.  What  river  drains  I^kc  Champlain  into  the  St.  Lawrence  ?  6.  What 
large  island  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence?  7.  Where  is  Montreal  ?  — Quebec  ?  8. 
Which  city  is  the  further  south,  Montreal  or  Quebec  ?  9.  Where  is  St.  Johns  f  — 
Three  Rivers  ? 

1.  Bound  New  Brunswick.  2.  What  river  forms  a  partfal  boundary  Iwtwecn 
New  Brunswick  and  Maine  ?  3.  WhiTo  is  St.  .John  '!  —  Fredericton  ?  4.  Where  is 
the  natural  and  |K>litical  division  of  Prince  Edward  Island  ?    6.  Name  the  capital. 

1.  What  natural  division  of  land  is  Nova  Scotia  >  2.  Measure  by  the  scale  of 
miles  its  length.     3.  Wh»t  bay  separates  it  from  New  Brunswick  1    4.  What  Lsland 


northeast  forms  part  of  the  same  Province  ?  5.  Where  is  Halifax  ?  6.  What  gulf 
west  of  Newfoundland?  7.  What  strait  north?  8.  What  cape  in  the  south?  9. 
In  what  part  is  St.  John  ? 

MEXICO. 

[Afap  rm  opposite  page]  —  1.  In  what  two  zones  is  Mexico  ?  2.  What  large 
river  forms  a  partial  boundiiry  between  Mexico  and  the  United  States  ?  3.  What 
country  southea.st  of  Mexico  ?  4.  What  peninsula  on  tlie  west  1  5.  What  cape 
at  the  end  of  the  longest  iieninsula  of  Mexico  ?  6.  What  mountain  range  traverses 
the  country  ?  7.  Has  Mexico  any  long  rivers  ?  8.  What  river  flows  into  the  Gulf 
of  California  ?  9.  Describe  the  location  of  the  city  of  Mexico  ;  of  Puebla  [puxb'la]  ; 
of  Matamo'ras  j  of  Vera  Cruz  ;  of  Acapulco  [pool'ko]. 

CENTBAIi  AMERICA. 

1.  In  what  direction  does  Central  America  extend  ?  2.  With  what  country  is  it 
connected  on  the  northwest  ?  3.  With  what  grand  division  is  it  connected  by  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama  ?  4.  Name  the  States  (n4)ublics)  in  their  order  from  north  to 
south.  5.  Name  the  States  on  the  PaciHc  coast  6.  Name  the  States  bordering 
upon  the  Caribbean  Sea.  7.  Wliich  Slates  border  on  both  ?  8.  In  which  State  is 
Lake  Nicaragua  ?  9.  Where  is  the  city  of  New  Guatemala  ?  —  of  San  Salvador  ?  — 
of  Managua  ?    10.  Where  is  Truxillo  [tru-hecl'ijo]  1    11.  Where  is  Belize  [bel-ees^  ? 

THE  'WEST  INDIES. 

1.  What  three  great  West  India  Islands  lie  in  a  lino  nearly  east  and  west  ? 
2.  What  sea  south  of  these  islands  ?  3.  What  island  south  of  Culm  ?  4.  What 
is  the  capital  of  Culm  ?  5.  Where  is  Kingston  !  6.  In  what  direction  are  the 
l^ihnmas  from  llayti  ?  7.  Where  is  Matan'zas  ?  8.  Name  the  strait  sejwirating 
Florida  from  l\u'.  West  Indies.  9.  Which  of  the  groups  of  the  West  India  Lslands 
extends  north  of  the  Tropic  of  Cancer  ?  10.  between  what  imrollels  are  the  lesser 
Antilles  included  ? 


82 


CANADA  AND   NEWFOUNDLAND. 


The  leading  imports  are  cloths,  cutlery,  and  other  manufactured 
articles  from  Great  Britain,  and  pork,  tobacco,  and  various  manu- 
factured articles  from  the  United  States.  The  exports  are  lumber, 
wheat,  potash,  fish,  and  furs,  to  England ;  and  lumber,  barley,  dairy- 
products,  and  live-stock,  to  the  United  States. 

4.  Civilization.  —  In  civilization  the  Dominion  ranks  with  the 
United  States:  the  people  are  educated,  prosperous,  and  pro- 
gressive. 

6.  Provinces.  —  A  considerable  diversity  of  natural  features, 
productions,  industries,  etc.,  marks  the  several  Provinces  of  the 
Dominion  of  Canada.     Below  is  a  desci'iption  of  each  Province.* 


VIEW   OF   MONTREAL, 


BEI'EBENCrE  TABLE  OE   CITIES. 

Names. 

Population. 

Characteristics. 

Montreal. 
Queliec. 

Toronto. 

St.  John. 
Halifax. 

Hamilton. 
Charlotte- 1 
town,      i 
Victoria. 

1*0,000 
62,000 

86,000 

29,000 
84,000 

35,000 
9,000 
6,000 

The  largest  city  in  the  Dominion.  Extensive  trade  and  manufae- 
tures.  A  magnificent  iron  tubular  bridge  (tlie  Victoria  Bridge), 
two  miles  long,  spans  the  St.  Lawrence  River  here. 

The  capital  of  tlie  Province  of  Quebec,  and  the  principal  shipping 
point  for  the  Lower  St  Lawrence.  Large  lumber-trade.  A  pic- 
turesque old  town,  with  walls  and  strong  fortifications. 

TIic  capital  of  the  Province  of  Ontario.  A  commercial  and  edu- 
cational center. 

The  chief  city  and  seaport  of  New  Brunswick. 

The  capital,  chief  city,  and  seaport  of  Nova  Scotia  ;  also  the  prin- 
cipal naval  station  of  Great  Britain  in  North  America.  Carries 
on  ship-building  and  coal-trade. 

The  second  trading  and  manufacturing  city  in  Ontario. 

The  capital  of  Prince  Edw.ird  Island.    Has  considerable  commerce. 
Oil  V.ancouver  Island     The  chief  city  of  British  Columbia. 

Arctic  Regions.  —  The  Arctic  Regions  exteml  fiom  Davis  Strait  on  the  east  to 
Behring  Strait  on  the  west,  along  the  shores  anil  in  the  waters  of  the  Arctic  Ocean. 
They  comjirise  numerous  ish-inils,  peninsulas,  gulfs,  hays,  sounds,  and  straits ;  and 
are  chiefly  interesting  as  liaving  heen  the  scene  of  numerous  brave  and  deteimined 
attempts  to  find  a  northwest  p.issage  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

Northwest  Passage.  —  That  a  passage  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  Ocean 
docs  exist  was  definitely  proved  by  Captain  McClure  (1850-51),  who  passed  from  the 
Pacific  through  Behring  Strait  to  Baffin  Bay  and  the  Atlantic  ;  but  the  discovery  is 
of  no  practical  advantage  to  navigation,  since  the  seas  are  sometimes  icebound  for 
years  or  else  obstructed  by  enormous  icebergs. 

Arctic  Tnhabitanta.  —  The  sole  inhabitants  of  the  dreary  Arctic  regions  are  a 
few  wandering  Esquimaux,  who  live  on  the  flesh  of  the  seal  and  on  fish  and  sea-fowl. 
The  flesh  of  the  seal  produces  heat  in  the  body,  and  is  the  only  food  that  could  keep 
the  inhabitants  alive  during  the  long  cold  winters.      Tlie  Esquimaux  travel  about  on 
sleds  drawn  by  teams  of  dogs.     Their  clothes  are  made  from  the  skins  of  the  seiil. 
They  live  in  huts  built  of  blocks  of  snow,  —  the  warmest  and  most  comfortable 
houses  that  could  be  built  there.     Having  no  wood  or  coal,  they  use  the  fat  of  the 
seal  and  whale  for  warming  their  huts  and  for  cooking  their  food. 

*  PROVINCES  OF  THE  DOMINION. 

Ontario,  lying  between  the  Ottawa  River  and  Lake  Superior,  is  the  most 
important  part  of  Canada.  It  fronts  on  the  Upper  St.  Lawrence  and  on  lakes 
Ontario,  Erie,  Huron,  and  Superior.  The  climate  resembles  that  of  the  Lake 
States.  Between  Montreal  and  Lake  Ontario  the  St.  Lawrence  is  obstructed  by 
rocks  and  rapids ;  but  by  the  aid  of  locks  and  side-canals  vessels  are  enabled  to 
pass  up  to  the  lake.  The  Niagara  River,  which  connects  lakes  Erie  and  Ontario, 
is  of  course  not  navigable,  on  account  of  the  great  Falls,  but  communication 
between  the  two  lakes  is  effected  by  means  of  the  Welland  Canal. 

The  southern  part  of  this  Province  is  thickly  settled  by  a  population  mainly 
of  British  and  American  descent.  Tlie  northern  and  northwestern  parts  arc 
still  covered  with  primeval  forests.  Agriculture  and  lumbering  are  the  leading 
industries. 

Quebec  is  a  large  Province,  occupying  both  sides  of  the  River  St  Lawrence 
from  the  Ottawa  River  to  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  The  climate  is  marked 
by  a  very  cold  winter  and  a  dry,  hot  summer.  The  valley  of  the  St.  Lawrence 
is  in  general  exceedingly  fertile ;  but  the  north  bank  east  of  the  Saguenay, 
owing  to  the  severity  of  the  temperature,  is  almost  incapable  of  cultivation. 

This  Province  derives  its  chief  importance  from  its  commercial  position,  its 
lumber-trade,  and  its  fisheries.  The  St.  Lawrence,  navigable  for  large  ships  to 
Montreal,  affords  direct  communication  between  the  great  West  and  the  Atlantic. 
The  river  is  closed  by  ice  for  five  months  of  the  year.  During  this  season  the 
ocean  outlet  for  Canadian  produce  is  by  way  of  Portland,  Me. 

The  Province  of  Quebec  is  largely  peopled  by  descendants  of  t1ie  original 
French  settlers.  They  are  called  hahitans  ;  and  in  the  country  parts  many  of 
them  speak  a  corrupt  French  dialect,  and  have  pecidiar  manners  and  customs. 
The  rest  of  the  population  are  of  British  descent. 

Ne'w  Bruns'wick  in  physical  features  resembles  the  State  of  Maine,  which 
it  adjoins.  Most  of  its  surface  is  covered  with  dense  forests.  The  leading  in- 
dustries are  lumbering,  ship-building,  and  the  fisheries.  The  inhabitants  are 
mainly  of  English  and  Irish  descent. 

Nova  Scotia  comprises  the  peninsula  of  Nova  Scotia  and  the  adjoining 
Island  of  Cape  Breton.     Being  within  the  influence  of  the  Gulf  Stream,  it  has 


a  climate  more  equable  than  that  t)f  the  inland  Provinces.  The  mining  of 
coal,  iron,  and  gypsum  is  extensively  carried  on  ;  and  the  cod,  mackerel,  and 
salmon  fisheries  rank  next  to  those  of  Newfoundland.  The  exports  are  lum- 
ber, dried  fish,  cojil,  gypsum,  and  grindstones. 

Prince  Ed'ward  Island  has  a  generally  level  surface  and  a  fertile  soil. 
Agriculture  is  the  leading  occupation,  though  ehip-building  to  some  extent  is 
carried  on. 

Manitoba,  formerly  called  the  Red  River  Settlement,  lies  nearly  in  the 
center  of  North  America.  It  is  a  prairie  country,  with  a  fertile  soil  well 
adapted  to  the  growth  of  wheat  and  other  grains  ;  but  the  lack  of  transportation 
to  a  market  checks  enterjirise.  Of  the  whole  population  seven  eighths  are 
Indians  and  half-breeds.  A  large  trade  in  furs  and  skins  is  carried  on.  Win- 
nipeg is  the  capital  and  chief  town. 

British  Columbia  is  a  mountainous  country,  covered  with  forests.  It  has 
few  white  inhabitants,  but  is  the  home  of  several  tribes  of  Indi.nns.  Gold  is 
foiand  along  the  Frazer  River.  Extensive  coal-mines  are  worked  on  Vancouver 
Island.     New  Westminster  is  the  capital. 

The  District  of  Ke-watin  (formed  from  the  Northwest  Territory  in  1867) 
extends  from  the  western  bountary  of  Ontario  west  to  the  Province  of  Manitoba 
and  the  eastern  shore  of  Lake  Winnipegosis,  and  north  to  Hudson's  Bay.  It 
is  imder  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Lieutenant-Governor  of  Manitoba. 

North-west  Territory.  —  This  extensive  region  was  formerly  in  the  pos- 
session of  a  great  trading  company,  called  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company;  but  in 
1870,  by  an  Act  of  the  British  Parli.ament,  all  this  immense  territory  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  Dominion  of  Canada  for  purposes  of  colonization.  The  southern 
part  is  a  fine  grain  and  p.isture  country. 

The  forests  abound  with  fur-bearing  animals,  of  which  the  most  valuable 
are  the  sable,  ermine,  mink,  marten,  and  beaver.  The  Hudson's  Bay  Com- 
pany has  upwards  of  fifty  "  forts,"  scattered  over  various  parts  of  the  country, 
for  the  purpose  of  collecting  furs,  which  form  the  chief  tiade.  The  popu- 
lation (of  about  150,000)  consists,  for  the  most  part,  of  half-breeds  and 
Indians. 


GREENLAND  AND  ICELAND. 


83 


VIEW  or  Qutaio. 


NEWFOUNDLAND. 

L  Description.  —  Tlie  Island  of  Newfoundland  forms  a  British 
Province  separate  from  the  Dominion  of  Canada. 

The  government  of  Newfoundland  includes  also  the  coast  of 
Labrador  for  700  miles. 

2.  The  climate  is  cold  and  severe,  owing  to  the  great  quantity  of 
ice  which  is  always  round  the  island,  brought  down  by  the  winds 
and  currents  in  enormous  icebergs  from  the  Arctic  Ocean.  Fogs 
also  prevail,  especially  on  the  Banks,  being  caused  by  the  cold  cur- 
rents from  the  north  meeting  the  Gulf  Stream. 

3.  The  fisheries  form  the  sole  wealth  of  the  island.  The  cod- 
fisheries  on  the  Banks  of  Newfoundland  are  the  greatest  and  most 
important  fisheries  in  the  world.  Tlie  whale,  salmon,  and  herring 
fisheries  of  Labrador  are  also  important 


St.  Johns  (23,000),  the  capital,  is  the  chief  commercial  station 
in  the  islands. 

The  Banks,  ns  they  are  called,  are  elcvnted  plateaus  in  this  part  of  the  ocean, 
rising  far  aliovo  the  stirrouniling  bottom  of  the  st-a.  They  form  the  favorite  feeding- 
ground  of  the  co<Ifish.  The  Grand  Bank,  situated  to  the  east  and  south  of  the 
island,  extemls  about  300  miles  in  length  and  200  in  breadth.  The  depth  of  water 
on  the  Banks  varies  from  150  to  over  500  feet. 

The  cod  are  found  in  extraordinary  abundance,  and  their  annnal  capture  in  this 
Icx'ality  for  the  last  200  years  docs  not  apjK'ar  to  have  diminished  in  any  degree  the 
\  ;i.st  multitude  of  their  shoals.  Thousands  of  vessels  every  year  repair  to  the  Banks 
for  cod-fishing.  From  February  to  April  their  crews  are  employed  from  morning  till 
night  in  boats  (wntuining  from  two  to  four  men  each.  Sometimes  a  good  fisherman 
will  catch  several  humlred  in  a  day.  On  the  shore  stages  or  pLitfonus  ore  erected, 
where  the  lish  aiu  cluauud,  salted,  and  diied. 


GREENLAND   AND   ICELAND. 

1.  Danish  America  is  the  name  usually  given  to  Greenland 
and  Iceland,  both  these  countries  being  possessions  of  the  king- 
dom of  Denmark. 

2.  Greenland.  —  Greenland  is  a  very  large  island,  or  possibly 
several  islands  joined  by  ice.  It  is  a  great,  dreary,  baiTen  country, 
covered  with  glaciers,  and  situated  so  far  north  as  to  be  iminhab- 
itable  except  at  a  few  points  along  the  sea-coast 

3.  The  population,  less  than  10,000  in  all,  consists  of  Esqui- 
maux and  a  few  Danes  and  Norwegians,  who  have  some  trading 
and  shipping  posts  at  New  Hernhut,  Upernavik  [oo-per'na-vik], 
and  other  points  along  the  coast  The  chief  exports  are  eider- 
down, whale  and  seal  oil,  and  furs. 

4.  Iceland.  —  Iceland  is  a  mountainous  island,  the  greater  part 
of  it  being  a  dreary  wilderness  of  lava,  thrown  out  by  numerous 
volcanoes,  of  which  Hecla  is  the  best  known.  Here  also  are  the 
famous  hot  springs  called  Geysers  (gei/sa,  to  rage). 

6.  Population.  —  The  island  has  a  small  but  intelligent  popula- 
tion (7U,UUU),  mainly  engaged  in  cattle-raising  and  fishing.  The 
capital  is  Reykjavik  [riiky-a-vik]. 


84 


MEXICO,    CENTllAL   AMERICA,   AND    THE   WEST   INDIES. 


MEXICO,  CENTRAL  AMERICA,  AND  THE  WEST   INDIES. 


MEXICO. 

L  Sitnation.  —  Mexico  is  situated  to  the  south  of  the  ■western 
part  of  the  United  States.  As  a  republic  lying  along  the  border 
of  our  own  country,  it  is  of  considerable  interest  to  us,  both  politi- 
cally and  commercially. 

Aeea,  760,000  square  miles,  or  nearly  double  the  size  of  all  the  Atlantic  States. 

2.  Surface.  —  The  Pacific  Highland  of  North  America  reaches  its 
greatest  elevation  in  Mexico.  Two  mountain-ranges  situated  near 
the  opposite  coasts  extend  from  northwest  to  southeast,  and  are  the 
margins  of  a  great  mountain-plateau  (from  4,000  to  8,000  feet  in 
altitude),  which  forms  the  greater  part  of  the  country. 

3.  Between  the  mountains  and  the  coast  on  each  side  is  a  belt  of 
lowland,  varying  from  a  few  miles  to  one  hundred  miles  in  width. 

Note.  — Tlie  coast-belt  is  called  the  ticrra  calien'te,  or  hot  country ;  the  table- 
land is  called  the  tierra  templa'da,  or  tcniiiemte  region.  There  are  several 
volcanic  mountains  in  Mexico,  among  which  is  Popocatapetl,  above  17,000  feet 
high. 

4  Climate  and  Vegetation.  —  Climate  and  vegetation  in  Mexico 
depend  almost  wholly  upon  the  degree  of  elevation  of  the  surface. 
The  coast-plains  are  very  hot  and  unhealthful ;  they  produce  the 
sugar-cane,  coffee,  indigo,  and  tropical  fruits.  The  table-land  is  a 
region  of  perpetual  spring,  and  yields  wheat  and  com,  olives 
and  grapes,  with  other  grains  and  fruits  of  the  temperate  region. 

5.  Kesources.  —  Mexico  is  rich  in  gold,  silver,  quicksilver,  and 
other  metals ;  and  the  soil  is  generally  fertile.  The  country  is, 
however,  destitute  of  water-highways  from  the  interior  to  the  coast. 

6.  Industries.  —  Agriculture  and  silver-mining  are  the  principal 
occupations,  but  every  branch  of  industry  is  at  the  lowest  ebb. 

Chief  Products  of  Bxportation.  —  Gold,  silver,  lead,  vanilla,  sarsaparilla, 
coffee,  sugar,  cotton,  cochineal,  lumber,  jalapine. 

7.  The  population  (10,000,000)  consists  of  Mexican  Indians,  who 
form  the  majority ;  of  Creoles,  or  people  descended  from  Spanish 
parents  (only  about  one  tenth  of  the  whole) ;  and  of  Mestizos,  or 
mixed  races.  The  government  is  a  federal  republic,  consisting  of 
twenty-seven  States. 

8.  Civilization.  —  The  Mexicans  are  a  civilized  but  not  a  pro- 
gressive people.  There  are  in  the  country  few  schools,  few  rail- 
roads, telegraphs,  or  newspapers ;  the  laws  are  not  well  enforced ; 
and  the  people  are  generally  poor  and  ignorant. 

9.  Cities.  —  The  City  of  Mexico  (242,000),  the  capital  and  me- 
tropolis, is  a  picturesque  city,  situated  in  a  valley  overlooked  by 
lofty  snow-covered  mountains.     Other  important  places  are:  — 


Names. 

Population. 

Fnebla. 

77,000 

Guadalajara. 

93,000 

[gwa-da-ki-ha'Ta.  ] 

Onanajnato. 

63,000 

[gwan-na-hwa'to.  ] 

Qneretaro. 

48,000 

[faly-rai/'ta-ro.] 

Vera  Cnii. 

14,000 

Jalapa, 

35,000 

[ftd-fa'jM.] 

Kazatlan. 

16,000  \ 
8,000  J 

Aoapnrco. 

Characteristics. 


Second  city  in  size.     Manufacturing  place. 

Manufacture  of  shawls,  calico,  earthenware,  and  leather  goods. 

Center  of  a  silver-raining  region, 

Lar^'e  cotton-manufacture. 

Principal  seaport. 

Beautiful  and  healthful  sitnation. 

Seaport  cities  on  the  Pacific  coast. 


CENTRAL    AMERICA. 

L  General  Description.  —  Central  America,  the  most  southerly 
division  of  North  America,  is  the  seat  of  five  independent  repub- 
lics,—  Guatemala,  Honduras,  San  Salvador,  Nicaragua,  and  Costa 
Kica,  —  and  of  the  small  province  of  British  Honduras,  or  Belize. 


states. 


Guatemala. 
Hondu'ras. 
San  Salvador'. 
Nicara'gua. 
Costa  Bica. 


Population. 


1,200,000 
350,000 
550,000 
350,000 
185,000 


CapitaL 


Guatemala. 

Te^Tcigalpa. 

San  S.ilvador. 

Managua. 

San  Joa6  [fto-say^. 


2.  Physical  Features.  —  The  physical  features,  climate,  and  pro- 
ductions of  Central  America  are  similar  to  those  of  Mexico. 

3.  Importance.  —  The  importance  of  this  country  arises  (1)  from 
its  geograjjhical  position  on  the  nan'ow  neck  of  land  between  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans ;  (2)  from  its  abundance  of  valuable 
natural  products. 

4.  The  industry  of  Central  America  is  generally  in  a  backward 
condition ;  but  cacao,  coffee,  cochineal,  caoutchouc,  mahogany,  log- 
wood, and  sarsaparilla  are  exported. 

5.  Population.  —  Three  fourths  of  the  peojile  are  either  Indians 

or  Mestizos.     The  whites  are  nearly  all  of  Spanish  descent. 

British  Honduras.  —  The  province  of  British  Honduras,  wliich  is  geographically 
included  within  Central  America,  belongs  to  Great  Britain,  and  is  attached  to  the 
government  of  Jamaica.  Its  chief  produce  is  mahogany.  The  town  of  Belize  is  the 
principal  settlement. 


THE    WEST    INDIES. 


I.    GENERAL    DESCRIPTION. 

L  Situation.  —  The  West  India  Islands  constitute  a  great  archi- 
pelago that  stretches  in  a  curvUinear  line  from  Florida  to  the 
mouth  of  the 
Orinoco  Eiver. 
They  include 
not  less  than 
a  thousand  isl- 
ands, varying 
greatly  in  size. 

2.  Their  im- 
portance arises 
from  the  great 
variety  and 
commercial 
value  of  their 
vegetable  pro- 
ducts. WEST  INDIA  PROOUCtS. 

3.  Divisions.  —  These  islands  are  divided  into  the  Greater  An- 
tilles \an-teer\,  —  Cuba,  Hayti  \haijte\,  Jamaica,  and  Porto  Eico 
[re'to]  ;  the  Lesser  Antilles ;  and  the  Baha'ma  Islands. 

4.  Surface.  —  Nearly  all  the  islands  of  the  Greater  and  Lesser 
Antilles  are  mountainous,  and  have  great  diversity  of  surface.  The 
Bahama  Islands  are  generally  low,  and  are  of  coral  formation. 


THE  WEST  INDIES. 


85 


6.  Climate.  —  The  climate  of  the  West  Indies  is  tropical,  but  the 
influence  of  the  surrounding  seas,  of  the  high  mountain-ranges,  and 
-of  the  trade- winds  moderates  the  intense  heat  of  the  torrid  zone. 
The  only  change  of  seasons  is  that  from  dry  to  rainy  weather.  The 
copious  rains  and  the  warm  climate  of  these  islands  are  admirably 
suited  to  the  growth  of  sugar-cane,  tobacco,  and  tropical  fruits. 

6.  Productions.  —  The  chief  articles  of  commercial  produce  are 
sugar,  rum,  and  molasses,  ft-om  the  sugar-cane ;  tobacco,  which 
makes  the  finest  of  cigars ;  cotton,  coffee,  and  cacao ;  indigo  and 
dye-stufis ;  ginger  and  pimento,  or  allspice ;  with  oranges,  bananas, 
pine-apples,  and  many  other  delicious  fruits. 

7.  OoTemment  —  Most  of  the  islands  of  the  West  Indies  are  in 
the  possession  of  European  nations,  —  principally  Spain,  England, 
and  France ;  and  the  white  population  of  each  consists  orincipally 
of  settlers  from  the  country  to  which  it  belongs. 

8.  Population.  —  The  population  of  the  West  Indies  numbers 

about  four  millions  (one  tenth  that  of  the  United  States),  three 

fourths  being  negroes. 

Historical  —  The  West  Indies  were  the  first  part  of  the  New  World  settled  by 
the  Spaniards  after  the  discovery  of  America  by  Columbus.  The  natives  of  most  of 
the  islands  were  a  timid,  peaceful  race.  The  Spaniards  enslaved  them  and  worked 
them  so  hard  that  they  eventually  died  out  Then  the  Spaniards  brought  great 
numbers  of  African  slaves  to  these  islands,  and  the  Blacks  of  the  West  Indies 
are  their  descendants.  The  whole  coast  of  Africa  was  devastated  in  order  to  meet 
the  demand  of  the  New  World  for  slaves.  For  many  years  the  number  shipped 
for  America  in  the  holds  of  slavers  was  not  less  than  one  hundred  thousand 
annually.  Africa  was  drained  of  more  than  forty  millions  of  inhabitants  by  this 
traffic. 

II.    CUBA. 

9.  Its  rank.  —  Cuba  ranks  as  the  largest  and  most  important  of 
the  West  India  Islands.  It  is  about  the  same  size  as  England  or 
the  State  of  New  York.  This  island  was  settled  by  Spaniards,  and 
it  stiU  belongs  to  Spain. 

10.  Products.  —  The  most  important  products  are  siigar,  of  which 
Cuba  raises  more  than  any  other  country ;  and  tobacco,  which  is 
made  into  cigars  that  are  greatly  esteemed. 

11  Cities.  —  The  leading  cities  are  Havana  (230,000),  —  the 
greatest  sugar  market  in  the  world ;  and  Matan'zas  and  San- 
tia'go,  which  are  important  seaports. 

ill.    PORTO  RICO. 

12.  Porto  Eico  is  a  fertile  and  beautiful  island  belonging  to 
Spain.  Its  products  are  like  those  of  Cuba.  San  Juan  (20,000) 
is  the  capital  and  chief  seaport. 

HAYTI. 

General  Description. — 

(sometimes  called  San 

Domin- 

'-•*'  go)  ranks 

as    the 

^    second 

island  in 


populatK 


•AN   DO«INOO  SCCNC 


size.  It 
I  of  850,000 
tree  negroes,  and  is  the  seat  of 
two  petty  independent  repub- 
lics, Hayti  and  San  Domingo, 
or  the  Dominican  Republia 

11  Products.  —  The  products 
of  Hayti  are  the  same  as  those 


TKE    ISLAND    OF    MAYTL 


of  Cuba ;  it  also  sends  abroad  large  quantities  of  ginger.     But  the 
great  natural  resources  of  the  island  are  poorly  developed. 

15.  Cities.  —  The  leading  cities  are  Port  au  Prince  (27,000), 
the  capital  and  chief  seaport  of  the  Eepublic  of  Ha)rti ;  and  San 
Domingo  (15,000),  the  capital  and  chief  seaport  of  the  Eepublic  of 
San  Domingo. 

Note.  —  The  Republic  of  Hayti,  occupying  the  western  port  of  the  island,  was 
organized  in  1859  ;  the  Dominican  Republic,  in  the  eastern  part,  was  organized  in 
1866.     Hayti  is  the  island  named  by  Columbus  Hispaniola,  or  Little  Spain. 

V.    JAMAICA. 

1&  Jamaica,  the  most  important  of  the  British  West  India 
islands,  contributes  to  commerce  large  quantities  of  Jamaica  rum 
and  molasses,  and  most  of  the  pimento  or  allspice  used  in  the 
world. 

17.  Cities.  —  Kingston  (35,000),  the  capital,  is  the  largest  city 
and  chief  seaport. 


Lesser  Antilles. 


Lezwabd  Islands... 


.  WiNSWABO  Islands. 


BEFEBEHCE  XABLS  OF  KIKOB  ISLAKTDS  AlH)  GB0UP8. 

Host  of  these  islands  belong  to  Great 

Britain. 
Santa  Cruz  belongs  to  Denmark,  and 

is  noted  for  its  rum. 
St  Thomas  and  St  John  belong  to 
the  United  States. 
^  Guadaloupe  belongs  to  France. 

'  Trinidad  is  the  largest  island  (Eng- 
lish); capital,  Port  of  Spain. 
Barbadocs  (English),  is  a  fertile  and 
populous  island  ;  capital.  Bridge- 
toum  (19,000). 

,  Martinique  belongs  to  France. 

The  Bahamas.  —  The  islands  of  this  group  belong  to  Great  Britain.  Out  of 
several  hundred,  only  about  twelve  are  inhabited,  and  the  whole  group  contains  only 
about  40,000  population.  The  islands  yield  dye-woo<l,  salt,  and  green  turtles.  Nas- 
tau,  on  Providence  Island,  is  the  capital.  It  was  one  of  the  islands  of  this  group 
(supposed  to  be  Watling  Island)  that  Columbus  first  sighted  ou  his  voyage  in  1492  ; 
he  called  it  San  Sal'vador. 

The  Bennndaa.  —  These  islands  do  not  properly  form  part  of  the  West  Indies, 
being  off  the  east  coast  of  the  United  States,  but  they  may  best  be  classed  with 
that  archipelago.  They  are  British  possessions,  and  are  said  to  number  three  hun- 
dred and  fifty  islets  and  rocks,  but  only  five  of  the  nnmber  are  inhabited. 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY   OF   SOUTil  AMERICA. 


87 


SOUTH    AMERICA. 


tBrnCAL  MAP  or  SOOTH    *w»»tn^ 


view   ON    THE   RIVER   AMA^O 


2.  Shape.  —  Beginning  at  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  this 
grand  division  gradually  widens  toward  the  Equator,  a 
little  south  of  which  it  bulges  out  to  its  greatest  width, 

)out  3,000  miles;  south  of  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn  it  grows 
naiTower  and  narrower.     Its  general  shape  is  triangular. 


THE   EMPIRE   OF   BRAZIL. 

L  Extent  —  The  Empire  of  Brazil  is  the  largest  and  most  im- 
portant countrj'  of  South  America.  Its  area  is  nearly  as  great  as 
that  of  the  United  States  or  of  all  Europe. 

AkEa,  3,250,000  square  miles. 

2.  Physical  Features.  —  This  country  consists  of  two  sections 
nearly  equal  in  extent.  The  northern  part  is  a  vast  plain  watered 
by  the  Amazon  and  its  tributaries,  and  covered  with  extensive  for- 
ests ;  this  is  the  region  of  the  selvas.  The  southern  part  is  a  table- 
land traversed  by  low  mountain-ranges  that  form  the  watershed 
between  the  Amazon  and  the  Plata  rivers. 

3.  Resources.  —  In  the  richness  and  variety  of  its  vegetation 
Brazil  surpasses  all  other  countries.  This  natural  wealth  is  the 
result  of  its  tropical  climate  and  copious  rains. 

In  its  forests  are  found  the  cocoa,  sago,  and  many  other  kinds  of 
palms ;  mahogany,  rosewood,  and  dye-woods ;  caoutchouc,  cinchona, 
and  cacao;  while  under  cultivation  flourish  coffee,  sugar,  cotton, 
rice,  manioc,  bananas,  and  various  other  kinds  of  tropical  plants. 

Its  mines  yield  gold,  silver,  iron,  and  copper,  with  diamonds 
and  other  precious  stones. 

Its  long  line  of  sea-coast  and  mmierous  navigable  rivers  afford 
great  commercial  facilities. 

4  Industries.  —  Agriculture  and  stock-raising  are  the  chief  occu- 
pations. -The  staple  productions  for  export  are  coffee,  of  which  it 
supplies  three  fourths  of  the  whole  quantity  used  in  the  world ; 
and  sugar,  in  the  production  of  which  it  is  second  only  to  Cuba. 

Large  numbers  of  people  are  engaged  in  collecting  and  prepar- 
ing the  various  forest-products  and  in  working  the  rich  gold  and 

PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

|^7~  To  draw  the  Map  of  Sonth  America,  nee  iiecUon  on  Map-Drawlns,  pase  133. 

I.    POSITION,   SIZE,   AND  SHAPE. 

Map  Study.— 1.  Wliat  ia  the  latitude  of  Cape  Oallinas  [e'nas]!  2.  Of  Cape 
Horn  ?  3.  How  many  degrees  between  the  two  ?  4.  What  is  the  longitude  of  Cape 
St.  Roqne  [roak]1  6.  Of  Cape  Blanco?  6.  How  many  dogrces  between  the  two? 
7.  Where  does  the  E<|uator  cross  South  America?  8.  What  meridian  crosses  it 
near  the  center?  9.  What  isthmus  connects  South  America  witli  North  America? 
Ans.  Of  Panama.     10.  Bound  South  America.     11.   What  is  its  general  shape  ? 

L  Sitaatioii.  —  South  America  is  the  southern  half  of  the  New 
World,  and  is  connected  with  North  America  by  the  long,  narrow 
Isthmus  of  Panama. 

Note. —  It  lies  between  the  parallclH  of  12*  north  and  65°  south  latitude,  and 
between  the  meridians  of  35*  and  81*  west  longitude  (Greenwich). 


.      '  II.    OUTLINE  AND    COAST. 

"•   y      Map  Study. —  1.  Compare  the  Physical  Map  of  South  America  with 
largest  that  of  North  Ainorica,  and  state  which  grand  division  has  the  more  irregu- 


a  mag 
world.' 


Chili  ?  —  west  of  the  coast  of  Peni  ? 

8.  Outline.  —  Compared  with  North  America,  the  outline 


lar  outline.  2.  Which  is  the  most  northern  cape  ?  3.  The  most  eastern  ? 
4.  What  island  north  of  Venezuela?  5.  Are  there  any  great  inbreakings 
of  the  sea  between  Cajie  Gallinas  and  Cape  St.  Roqne  ?  6.  What  capes  be- 
tween Cape  St.  Ro<iue  and  Cape  Horn  ?  7.  Which  one  is  near  the  Tropic 
of  Cnpricom  ?  8.  What  bay  between  Cape  St.  Roque  and  Cape  Horn  ? 
9.  What  strait  separates  the  mainland  from  Tierra  del  Fuego  [te-ajfr'ah 
-del  foo-<iy'go]1     10.  Wliero  is  Cape  Honi  ?     H.  What  is  the  principal 

^  ^  inbrcaking  of  the  sea  on  the  western  coast  of  South  America?  12.  Which 
Specti'^is  the  most  western  cape?     13.  What  two  capes  are  in  nearly  the  same 

rt     J  latitude  ?    14.  Wliat  islands  east  of  Patagonia  ?     15.  What  islands  west 

riant  tj 

.^  of  this  grand  division  is  quite  regular. 

^^nd'"-    SURFACE. 

vanilla     Map  Study.— l.  In  what  direction  does  the  chief  mountain  system 
4_    I  extend  ?    2.   In  wliat  countries  are  the  following  peaks  of  tlic  Andes  :  Acon- 
,   'ca'gua?  — lUanipu  7  — Chimbora'so?  — Cotopax'i?     3.    What   mountain- 
^^        1  ranges  in  Brazil ?     4.   What  mountain-range  south  of  Venezuela?     5.  On 
trader^  the  Physical  Map,  point  out  tlie  Andes  mountain  system  ;  —  the  Brazilian 
K     fJ ranges;  —  the  Parime  Mountains.      6.  What  three  great  ri .""r-plains  of 
l South  America? 
01  trac     ^   Chief  Axis.  —  The  Andes  mountain  system,  bordering 
Dutchj  ^Y^^  western  coast  and  traversing  the  whole  length  of  South 
America,  forms  the  main  mountain  axis  of  this  grand  di- 
vision.    These  mountains  have  a  breadth  of  from  200  to 
300  miles,  and  consist  mainly  of  two  parallel  ranges  enclos- 
1-   I  ing  narrow  table-lands  and  mountain-valleys, 
or  llat      Note.  —  The  loftiest  jwaks  of  the  Andes  reach  an  elevation  of  nearly 
the  so'  25,000  feet.   That  of  lUampu  in  Bolivia  (24,812)  is  the  highest  jieak  in  the 
.      ,    .    entire  system.     The  most  noted  volcanic  peaks  are  Chimborazo  and  Coto- 
.)*^Ct   tj  j^j^j  jjj  ggugjor,  and  Aconcagua  in  Chili.     Tlie  whole  Andes  region  is  sub- 
OVerfli  ject  to  terrible  earthquakes,  which  frequently  destroy  entire  cities. 

^"■^'  5.  Brazilian  Highland.  —  This  region  consists  of  a  broad 
plateau,  with  an  avorage  elevation  of  only  about  2,500  feet,  ridged 
by  ranges  which  rise  to  a  height  of  from  4,000  to  6,000  feet.  The 
Brazilian  Mountains  bear  the  same  relation  to  the  Andes  that  the 
Alleghanie.s  in  North  America  bear  to  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

6.  Ouiana  Highland.  —  Guiana  is  traversed  by  a  rugged  mountain 
retrion  that  forms  the  watershed  between  the  basins  of  the  Ama- 
zon  and  Orino'co  rivers. 

7.  Plains.  —  Tliese  three  mountain  systems  are  separated  by 
three  great  river-valleys  or  plains,  —  the  plains  of  the  Orinoco,  of 
the  Amazon,  and  of  the  Plata. 

Tlie  plains  of  the  Orinoco  are  called  llanos,  and  are  level  and 
grassy  ;  those  of  the  Amazon  are  covered  with  dense  forests,  and 


88 


SOUTH  AMERICA. 


are   called  selvas ;   the   treeless   plains   of  the   Plata  are   called 
pampas.     These  are  covered  with  tall  pampas-grass. 

IV.  RIVERS  AND   LAKES. 

Map  Study.  —  1.  What  are  the  three  great  rivers  of  South  America  ?  2.  Into 
what  ocean  do  all  the  great  rivers  flow,  and  why  ?  3.  Describe  the  course  of  the 
Orinoco.  4.  What  are  the  main  tributaries  of  the  Amazon  ?  5.  What  are  the  prin- 
cipal constituents  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata  ?  6.  What  river  enters  the  Caribbean  Sea  ? 
7.  Wliat  lake  in  Venezuela  ?    8.  Where  is  Lake  Titicaca  [te-te-kah'kah]  ? 

8.  Great  Elvers.  —  South  America  possesses  the  most  extensive 
river  system  on  the  globe.     The  three  great  rivers  are  the  Ama- 
zon, the  Plata,  and  the  Orinoco.     From   the  fact  that  the  long 
slope  of  South  America  is  from  the  Andes  toward  the  east,  aI|JI..-'""S^ 
riA^ers  flow  in  that  direction  and  empty  into  the  Atlantic  Oaf  ' 

The  Amazon  (3,750  miles  long),  the  largest  river  in  the  world,  rises 
Andes,  receives  eight  tributaries  each  over  1,000  miles  long,  and  flows  i^ 
Atlantic  Ocean  near  the  Equator.     It  drains  a  mountain  region  2,000  \  \ 
length,  and  is  navigable  to  the  foot  of  the  Andes. 

The  Plata  (2,300  miles  long),  formed  by  the  confluence  of  the  I  ^ 
and  the  Parana'  rivers,  rises  in  the  Brazilian  Highland,  and  flows  soij 
into  the  Atlantic,  fonuing  a  great  estuary.     It  has  a  basin  nearly  as 
that  of  the  Mississippi. 

Note.— The  name  Plata,  or  Rio  de  la  Plata,  belongs  properly  only  to  the  broad  estui 
Parana. 

The  Orinoco  (1,550  miles  long)  rises  in  the  mountiiins  of  Guiana, 
tributaries  from  the  Andes,  and  flows  in  a  northerly  direction  i 
Atlantic.  It  has  a  deep,  navigable  channel  nearly  to  its  source,  and 
ject  to  sudden  overflows,  which  cause  extensive  inundations. 

9.  Minor  Streams.  —  The  three  most  important  minor  ri 
the  San  Francisco,  Magdalena,  and  Eio  Negro.     The  stream 
tying  into  the  Pacific  Ocean  are  mere  mountain  torrents. 

10.  Lakes.  —  The  largest  of  the  South  American  lakes  i 
Maracay'bo  in  Venezuela.     The  most  remarkable  is  Lake 
situated  on  the  high  plateau  of  Bolivia,  nearly  13,000  feet  ab 
sea-level.     It  is  at  the  highest  elevation  of  any  lake  on  the 

V.  CLIMATE,    VEGETATION,    ETC. 

IL  Climate.  —  South  America  has  two  climatic  regions, 
the  tropical  region  and  the  temperate  region.     These  aref 
mined  partly  by  latitude  and  partly  by  altitude. 

12.  The  tropical  region  embraces  all  that  part  which  is 
in  the  torrid  zone  and  in  the  lowlands,  —  three  fourths  of 
America.     This  section  has  copious  rains,  supplied  by  th( 
rain-winds  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 

13.  The  temperate  region  comprises  that  part  which,  tho 


MAP  STUDIES  ON  THI.^ 

I^T"  Each  country  to  be  taken  in  connection  with  the  descriptive  text. 

Brazil. — 1.  Bound  it.  2.  In  what  zone  is  the  greater  part?  3.  De-soribe  the 
largest  river.  4.  In  what  latitude  is  the  mouth  of  the  river  ?  5.  Wh''.t  rivers  form 
partial  boundaries  of  Brazil  ?  6.  What  is  the  general  direction  of  the  chains  of  the 
Brazilian  Mountain  system  ?  7.  Kear  what  tropic  is  Kio  Janeiio  ?  8.  Locate  Bahia 
\bah-ef! aK\, —  Pernambuco  \boo'ko\ 

Guiana.  —  1.  What  mountains  west  of  British  Guiana?  2.  Bound  Dutch 
Guiana.  3.  What  country  east  and  south  of  French  Guiana?  4.  Give  the  capital 
of  each  colony. 

Venezuela. —  1.  Bound  it.  2.  What  great  river  traverees  it.  3.  Name  its 
principal  mountain-chain.  4.  What  lake  and  gulf  in  the  northwestern  part? 
5.  What  is  the  capital  ?     6.  Locate  Cumana', —  La  Guayra  [^Mi'roA]. 

States  of  the  Andes. —  1.  What  political  division  of  North  America  joins 
Colombia  on  the  northwest?  2.  What  is  the  general  direction  of  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama?  3.  Where  is  Cape  Gallina.s?  4.  What  mountains  in  Colombia?  6. 
\yhat  is  the  chief  river  of  Colombia  ?  6.  What  is  tlie  relative  situation  of  Panama 
and  Aspinwall  ?     7.  Locate  Bogota', —  Cartage'na. 

1.  Bound  Ecuador.    2.  What  gulf  in  the  southern  part  ?    3.  Most  of  the  streams 


the  torrid  zone,  has  a  great  altitude,  together  with  the  narrow 
southern  part,  except  the  extreme  south,  which  is  quite  cold. 
The  western  slope  of  the  Andes  in  Peru,  Bolivia,  and  Chili  is  a 
rainless  region. 

14.  Vegetation.  —  Owing  to  its  combination  of  both  heat  and 
moisture,  South  America  has  a  more  luxuriant  vegetation  than 
any  other  part  of  the  globe.  It  is  divided  into  two  plant-regions, 
the  tropical  and  the  temperate.  The  leading  characteristics  of 
each  are :  — 

Palms,   tree-ferns,   the  mahogany,  A 
rosewood,   logwood,   caoutchouc,   >  Natural  Growths. 


is  the  capital  ?    6.   Locate  Guayaquil  [gui-ah-ked'\  —  Cuenca  \twenikaK\. 

1.  Bound  Peru.  2.  Does  the  greater  part  belong  to  the  Andes  region  or  to 
the  Central  plain  ?  3.  What  great  river  has  its  head-waters  in  the  Peruvian  Andes  ? 
4.   What  is  the  capital  ?     5.   Locate  Arequipa,  —  Cuzco  [koos'ko]. 

1.  Bound  Bolivia.  2.  Its  small  sea-coast  is  crossed  by  what  circle  ?  3.  Of  what 
two  great  rivers  are  its  streams  tributaries  ?  4.  Has  it  a  greater  or  less  proportion  of 
plain  country  than  Peru  ?  5.  What  is  the  capital  ?  6.  Locate  La  Paz,  —  Cocha- 
bam'ba. 

1.  Bound  Chili.  2.  What  islands  off  the  coast  ?  3.  Between  what  parallels 
is  Chili  ?  4.  Wliat  is  the  longitude  of  part  of  the  eastern  boundary  ?  5.  Is  it  cast 
or  west  of  the  meridian  of  New  York  ? 

1.  Bound  the  Argentine  Republic.  2.  Name  its  largest  rivers.  3.  What  two 
capes  on  the  coast  ?  4.  Where  is  Buenos  Ayres  [Jow'ms  ay'riz]  ?  5.  Where  is  Men- 
do'za  ?     6.    Cor'dova  ? 

Minor  Countries.  —  1.  Bound  Uruguay,  and  name  its  capital.  2.  Bound  Para- 
guay, and  name  its  capital.  3.  In  what  zone  is  Patagonia  ?  4.  What  does  the 
Strait  of  Magellan  separate  ? 


BRAZIL,   GUIANA,  AND  VENEZUELA. 


89 


VIEW   ON    THE   fllVCR  AMAZON. 


THE   EMPIRE   OF   BRAZIL. 

L  Extent  —  The  Empire  of  Brazil  is  the  largest  and  most  im- 
pfjrtaut  country  of  South  America.  Its  area  is  nearly  as  great  as 
that  of  the  United  States  or  of  all  Europe. 

Area,  3,230,000  square  miles. 

2.  Physical  Features.  —  This  country  consists  of  two  sections 
nearly  equal  in  extent.  The  northern  part  is  a  vast  plain  watered 
by  the  Amazon  and  its  tributaries,  and  covered  with  extensive  for- 
ests ;  this  is  the  region  of  the  selvas.  The  southern  part  is  a  table- 
land traversed  by  low  mountain-ranges  that  form  the  watershed 
between  the  Amazon  and  the  Plata  rivers. 

3.  Resources.  —  In  the  richness  and  variety  of  its  vegetation 
Brazil  surpasses  all  other  countries.  This  natural  wealth  is  the 
resiUt  of  ita  tropical  climate  and  copious  rains. 

In  its  forests  are  found  the  cocoa,  sago,  and  many  other  kinds  of 
palms ;  mahogany,  rosewood,  and  dye-woods ;  caoutchouc,  cinchona, 
and  cacao;  while  under  cultivation  flourish  coffee,  sugar,  cotton, 
rice,  manioc,  bananas,  and  various  other  kinds  of  tropical  plants. 

Its  mines  yield  gold,  silver,  iron,  and  copper,  with  diamonds 
and  other  precious  stones. 

Ita  long  line  of  sea-coast  and  numerous  navigable  rivers  afford 
great  commercial  facilities. 

4  Industries.  —  Agriculture  and  stock-raising  are  the  chief  occu- 
pations. 'The  staple  productions  for  export  are  coffee,  of  which  it 
supplies  three  fourths  of  the  whole  quantity  used  in  the  world ; 
and  sugar,  in  the  production  of  which  it  is  second  only  to  Cuba. 

Large  numbers  of  people  are  engaged  in  collecting  and  prepar- 
ing the  various  forest-producta  and  in  working  the  rich  gold  and 
diamond  mines. 

Another  important  occupation  is  that  of  herding  cattle  and 
horses  on  the  great  plains. 

5.  Trade  with  lu.  —  With  the  United  States  Brazil  has  a  large 
trade,  which  consists  in  exchanging  its  producta  for  flour,  leather, 
cotton  cloth,  and  other  kinds  of  manufactured  articles. 

6.  Population,  etc.  —  The  population  (10,000,000)  is  composed 
of  whites  of  Portuguese  descent,  of  large  numbers  of  negroes  for- 
merly slaves,  and  of  Indian  and  mixed  races.  The  government  is 
a  limited  monarchy,  under  the  rule  of  an  Emperor.  The  religion 
is  the  Eoman  Catholic. 

7.  Civilization.  —  In  civilization  Brazil  is  the  most  enlightened 
and  progressive  of  the  South  American  states. 


8.  Cities.  —  liio  Jakeiro  [/a-nay'ro],  the  capital  (275,000),  is  the 
largest  and  most  important  city  in  South  America.  It  stands  on 
a  magnificent  bay  which  forms  one  of  the  finest  harbors  in  the 
world.     Bahu,  Peknambu'co,  and  Paea'  rank  next  in  importance. 


I  *■»  > 


GUIANA. 
L  Divisions.  —  Guia'na  comprises  three  colonies,  belonging  re- 
spectively to  Great  Britain,  Holland,  and  France. 

2.  Climate.  —  It  has  a  hot  climate,  abundant  rains,  and  a  luxu- 
riant tropical  vegetation. 

3.  Products.  —  In  addition  to  the  common  tropical  products  of 
Brazil,  it  produces  pepper,  cloves,  cinnamon,  and  nutmegs,  with 
vanilla  and  the  cacao-tree. 

4.  People.  —  The  population  is  composed  of  blacks  who  work 
on  the  jJantations,  native  Indians,  and  a  few  thousand  white 
traders  and  planters  from  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Holland. 

5.  Towns.  —  Georgetown  (40,000)  is  the  capital  and  chief  seat 
of  trade  of  British  Guiana ;  Paramar'ibo  (25,000)  is  the  capital  of 
Dutch  Guiana ;  and  Cayenne  is  the  capital  of  French  Guiana. 


VENEZUELA. 

1  Physical  Features.  —  Venezuela  consists  of  vast  grassy  plains, 
or  llanos,  watered  by  the  Orinoco  and  its  nxmierous  tributaries.  In 
the  south  is  a  highland  region.  The  climate  is  tropical,  and  sub- 
ject to  great  extremes  of  drought  and  moisture.  The  Orinoco 
overflows  its  banks  annually. 

'Sots.  —  Venezaela  means  liUU  Venice,  and  the  country  was  so  called  by  the 
Spaniarda  on  seeing  some  Indian  villages,  which,  being  built  on  piles  in  Lake  Mara- 
caylx),  liiul  somewhat  the  appearance  of  Venice. 

2.  Industries.  —  The  llanos  are  the  feeding-grounds  of  immense 
herds  of  cattle,  horses,  and  sheep ;  and  stock-raising  is  the  chief 
occupation  of  the  people. 

In  various  parts  of  the  country  coffee,  sugar,  cotton,  cacao, 
indigo,  and  tobacco  are  cultivated ;  these  form,  with  hides,  horses, 
and  tallow,  the  principal  exports. 

3.  Population,  etc.  —  Ita  population  (2,000,000)  consists  of  whites 
of  Spanish  descent,  Indians,  and  mixed  races.  The  government  is 
a  republic,  and  the  religion  Roman  Catholic. 

4.  Cities.  —  Carac'as  (50,000)  is  the  capital  and  oommercial 
center.     Maracaybo  also  has  an  extensive  trade. 


90 


SOUTH  AMERICA. 


THE    STATES    OP    THE    ANDES. 

1.  Divisions.  —  The  Andes  region  is  occupied  by  six  republics,  — 
Colombia,  Ecuadoi'',  Peru,  Bolivia,  Chili,  and  the  Argentine  Kepublic. 

2.  Physical  Features.  —  These  countries  are  grouped  together 
because  they  have  in  common  certain  marked  physical  features. 
The  Andes  chains  intersect  them  north  and  south,  so  that  these 
countries  lie  on  both  slopes,  with  the  exception  of  Chili,  which  lies 
entirely  on  the  western  slope,  and  the  Argentine  Eepublic,  which 
lies  entirely  on  the  eastern. 

The  plateau  and  mountain  section  of  the  Andes  is  from  100  to 
250  miles  wide.  The  western  slope  and  Pacific  coast  plain  form 
a  comparatively  narrow  strip,  from  50  to  100  miles  wide ;  the  east- 
ern slope  has  a  long  and  gradual  descent  into  the  great  Central 
Plain  of  South  America. 

3.  Climate.  —  The  climate  of  these  countries  is  thus  divided : 
(1.)  The  hot  and  unhealthy  climnte  of  the  lowlands  on  each  side  of 
the  Andes.   (2.)  The  tem- 


perate and  spring-like 
climate  of  the  mountain- 
valleys  and  table-lands, 
which  have  a  moderate 
elevation  of  from  5,000  to 
12,000  feet.  (3.)  The  cold 
and  wintry  climate  above 
12,000  feet.  The  latter  is 
found  on  the  lofty  peaks 
of  the  Andes,  which  shoot 
up  into  the  region  of  eter- 
nal snow  and  ice. 

4  Characteristics. — The 
Andes  region  presents 
three  zones,  each  marked 
by  its  own  characteristics 
of  animal  and  vegetable 
life:  (1.)  The  lowlands, 
which  have  the  tropical 
products  and  the  animals 
of  Brazil.  (2.)  The  table- 
lands and  the  mountain- 
valleys,  where  maize  and 
potatoes  are  the  food- 
products,  where  the  forest-trees  are  the  cinchona,  the  pine,  and  the 
oak,  and  where  the  few  wild  animals  are  almost  limited  to  the 
llama  among  quadrupeds  and  the  condor  among  birds.  (3.)  The 
cold,  bleak,  and  elevated  mountain  region,  where  the  vegetation  is 
limited  to  shrubs  and  mosses. 

5.  The  internal  trade  of  all  these  states  is  much  impeded  by  the 
want  of  roads.  Goods  are  generally  conveyed  across  the  mountains 
upon  the  backs  of  mules  and  llamas. 

Note.  —  The  llama,  which  belongs  to  the  order  of  Rumirmntia,  is  confined  to  the 
declivities  of  the  Andes,  where  it  is  used  as  a  beast  of  burden,  and  supplies  some  of 
tlie  purposes  of  the  camel  of  the  Old  World,  though  very  inferior  to  that  animal  in 
size,  strength,  and  inteUigence. 

6.  People.  —  The  population  of  all  these  countries  consists  of 
whites  of  Spanish  descent,  of  native  Indians,  and  of  various  mixed 
breeds.  The  mixed  races  and  the  Indians  are  generally  unedu- 
cated and  unprogressive.  The  governments  are  all  republics,  and 
the  prevailing  religion  is  Eoman  Catholic. 


OROSSINQ  THE  ANDES. 


THE   REPUBLICS    IN    DETAIL. 

1,  The  United  States  of  Colombia  consists  of  nine  States  united 
in  a  confederation. 

The  principal  exports  are  tobacco,  gold,  coffee,  dye-wood,  hides, 
caoutchouc,  and  Peruvian  bark. 

Bogota'  (50,000)  is  the  capital  and  largest  city.  Cartage'na  is 
the  chief  seaport. 

2.  Ecuador  exports  cacao,  cotton,  straw  hats,  and  Peruvian  bark. 
Quito  \ke'to\,  the  capital  (80,000),  is  the  chief  commercial  metrop- 
olis.    Guayaquil'  is  the  principal  seaport. 

Note.  —  Ecuador  (a  name  taken  from  the  Spanish  form  of  the  word  equator)  lies 
along  the  Pacific  coast  for  several  degrees  on  each  side  of  the  Equator.  Nearly 
under  this  line  are  the  two  great  volcanoes  of  Cotopaxi  and  Chimborazo.  The  best- 
peopled  district  is  the  plateau  of  Quito,  wliich  is  nearly  two  miles  above  the  sea-level. 
The  city  of  Quito  is  situated  on  this  plateau,  and  is  one  of  the  highest  cities  of  the 
globe  ;  it  is  nearly  under  the  line  of  the  Equator,  and  stands  9,520  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea.  Within  sight  of  eleven  summits  of  the  Andes,  which  are  covered  with 
snow  the  year  round,  it  enjoys  a  constant  spring.     The  Galapagos  Islands,  on  the 

line  of  the  Equator,  five  hundred 


miles  from  the  coast,  belong  to 
Ecuador.  They  are  noted  for 
their  peculiar  plants  and  ani- 
mals. 

3.  Peru  exports  guano, 
the  most  valuable  item  in 
Peruvian  commerce;  also 
saltpeter,  copper,  limited 
quantities  of  ore  from  its 
once  immensely  rich  silver 
mines ;  hides ;  wool  and 
hair  from  the  Peruvian 
sheep;  a  few  gums  and 
drugs,  and  small  amounts 
of  borax  and  cotton.  Lima 
(150,000)  is  the  capital  of 
Peru,  and  the  largest  city 
west  of  the  Andes.  Cal- 
LAO  \kal-yii'6\  is  its  seaport. 
Note.  —  Peru  is  one  of  the 
most  interesting  countries  of 
South  America,  being  the  earli- 
est part  of  South  America  con- 
quered by  the  Spaniards  under 
Pizarro.  At  the  time  of  the 
conquest  it  was  inhabited  by  a 
partly  civilized  race.  The  ancient 
Peruvians  had  built  many  large  cities  and  some  great  temples  ;  Cuzco,  their  capital, 
contained  the  great  Temple  of  the  Sun,  which  was  built  of  immense  blocks  of  stone, 
and  richly  covered  with  plates  of  gold  and  silver.  They  had  also  buUt  costly  roads 
in  the  mountains  to  all  parts  of  the  empire,  and  over  these  their  great  armies  marched. 
The  Spaniards  made  slaves  of  the  Indians,  whom  they  compelled  to  work  in  the  mines. 

4.  BoUvia  includes  in  its  western  part  the  highest  plateaus  and 
mountain-ridges  of  the  Andes  system ;  the  eastern  slope  spreads 
out  into  a  plain  belonging  to  the  basins  of  the  Amazon  and  the 
Plata. 

The  lowlands  yield  the  tropical  products  of  Brazil,  the  mountain- 
forests  produce  the  cinchona-tree,  and  the  upper  slopes  are  used 
as  the  pasture-grounds  of  sheep  and  llamas. 

La  Pa2  (25,000)  is  the  capital,  largest  city  and  commercial 
centre.     Sucre  [soo'kryl  is  the  old  capital 

5.  Chili  is  the  most  progressive  of  the  Spanish  American  repub- 
lics. In  climate  it  is  the  counterpart  of  California,  only  that  the 
periods  of  the  two  seasons  are  reversed. 


PARAGUAY  AND   URUGUAY. 


91 


Its  natural  wealth  con- 
sists in  its  copper-mines, 
valuable  forests,  produc- 
tive soil,  and  temperate 
climate.  The  principal 
exports  are  wheat,  hides, 
and  copper. 

Santugo  (150,000)  is 

the   capital   and  largest 

■  city.    Valparaiso  is  the 

I  chief  seaport  and  com- 

'  mercial  center. 

The  Arauoaniana,  a  semi-civilized 
tribe  of  Indians,  inhabit  a  large  tract  in 
Central  and  Southern  Chili,  and  are  prac- 
tically independent. 

&  The  Argentine  Bepnblic  occu- 
pies a  great  plain,  ov  pampas  region, 
drained  by  the  main  streams  which 
form  the  Plata ;  on  the  west  it  rises  into  the  Chilian  Andes. 

Vast  herds  of  cattle  and  horses  constitute  the  wealth  of  this 
country.  Its  exports  are  horse  and  ox  hides,  horse-hair,  horns, 
wool,  tallow,  dried  beef,  and  furs. 


8TRCET    8CENE    IN    VALPARArSO. 


lAWOINa  OATTL(  ON  TH(  PAHPAK 


BuKNOs  Ayres  (290,000),  the  capital,  is  the  chief  commercial 
city  of  this  portion  of  South  America,  being  the  outport  for  the 
produce  of  the  Plata  basin. 

Patagonia,  the  southern  portion  of  South  America,  is  a  comparatively 
barren  country,  inhabited  mainly  by  native  Indian  tribes,  which  subsist  by 
hunting  wild  cattle,  the  guanuco,  and  the  emu.  Patagonia  is  a  j»Hrt  of  the 
Argentine  Republic,  except  the  narrow  tract  of  country  at  the  western  base 
of  the  Patagonian  Andes  which  belongs  to  ChilL 


PARAGUAY    AND    URUGUAY. 

1.  Paraguay  is  a  fertile  country  admirably  fitted  to  yield  the 
products  both  of  the  tropical  and  temperate  regions  of  South  Amer- 
ica ;  but  it  has  been  greatly  injured  by  bad  government. 

The  most  characteristic  product  of  this  country  is  yerhe  mate,  or 
mat^-slirub,  the  leaves  of  which  are  prepared  as  a  tea  that  is  largely 
used  in  South  America.     This  forms  the  leading  export. 

The  capital  and  chief  place  of  Paraguay  is  Asuncion. 

2.  Uruguay  is  a  small  republic  south  of  Brazil,  and  bordering  on 
the  Atlantic.  The  people  are  mainly  engaged  in  stock-raising.  Its 
exports  are  hides,  wool,  and  tallow. 

Montevid'eo  is  the  capital  and  chief  city. 

ISLANDS    OF    SOUTH    AMERICA. 

Tierra  del  Fuego  comprehends  a  number  of  islands  lying  to  the  south  of 
Patagonia.  They  are  under  a  stormy,  sunles-s  sky,  and  their  mountainous  sur- 
face is  covered  with  gloomy  fore.sts.  The  Fuegians  who  inhabit  these  islands 
are  half-naked  savages,  very  low  in  the  scale  of  civilization.  These  islands 
belong  in  part  to  Chili  and  in  part  to  the  Ai^entine  Republic. 

Cape  Horn  Island,  or  Cape  Horn,  as  it  is  commonly  called,  ia  a  precipitous 
rock  fonning  the  southernmost  of  the  Tierra  del  Fuego  Islands.  Sailing  ves- 
sels in  circunmavigating  the  southern  extremity  of  South  America  usually 
double  Cape  Horn.  Steamei-s,  however,  often  pass  through  the  Strait  of  Ma- 
gellan, which  divides  the  island  of  Tierra  del  Fuego  from  the  mainland  :  it  is 
a  winding  channel  of  nearly  400  miles  in  length,  with  a  breadth  varying  from 
20  to  less  than  .5  miles.     The  Tierra  del  Fuego  Islands  belong  to  Chili. 

The  Falkland  Islands,  which  belong  to  Great  Britain,  yield  Tussac  grass, 
and  support  large  numbers  of  wild  pigs  and  rabbits.  Whaling-ships  and 
other  vessels  passing  around  Cape  Horn  occasionally  visit  Part  Stanley. 


TOPICAL    REVIEW   OF   SOUTH    AMERICA. 


CoimtriM. 

Area. 

Population. 

Name  of  CapitaL 

Name  of 
Largest  City. 

Popalatlon  of 
Largest  City. 

Fonn  of  Ooveniment,  eta 

Brazil. 

aq.  miles. 
3,219,000 

12,000,000 

Bio  Janeiro. 

Kio  Janeiro. 

275,000 

liimited  monarchy  under  an  emperor. 

British  Ooiana.  \ 

C  Georgetown. 

40,000  \ 

French  Oniana.  > 

178,000 

350,000 

<  Cayenne. 

10,000  ( 

Colonial 

Dutch  Oniana.    ) 

'  Paramaribo. 

25,000  ) 

Venezuela. 

440,000 

2,075,000 

Caracas. 

Caracas. 

50,000 

Republic,  like  that  of  the  United  States. 

Colombia. 

320,000 

3,000,000 

Bogota. 

Bogota. 

50,000 

Republic     "            "            "            " 

Ecuador. 

260,000 

950,000 

Quita 

Quito. 

80,000 

Republic     "            "            "            " 

Peru. 

425,000 

3,000,000 

Lima. 

Lima. 

150,000 

Republic     "            "            "            " 

Bolivia. 

500,000 

2,300,000 

La  Pas. 

La  Paz. 

25,000 

Republic     "            "            "            " 

Chili. 

210,000 

2,225,000 

Santiago. 

Santiago. 

150,000 

Republic     "             "             "             " 

Argentine  Bepublic. 

1,095,000 

2,500,000 

Buenos  Ayres. 

Buenos  Ayres. 

290.000 

Republic     "            "            "            " 

Paraguay. 

90,000 

800,000 

Asuncion. 

Asuncion. 

50,000 

Republic     "            "            "            " 

Umguay. 

70,000 

440,000 

Montevideo. 

Montevideo. 

75,000 

RepubUc     

PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY   OF  EUROPK 


93 


EUROPE. 


GREAT   BRITAIN   AND    IRELAND. 

L  Britisli  Isles.  —  The  British  Isles  consist  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland,  together  with  numerous  small  adjacent  islands.  The 
island  of  Great  Britain  comprises  England  proper,  Wales,  and 
Scotland;  and  these  countries,  together  with  Ireland,  constitute 
"The  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland." 

a  British  Empire.  —  The  name  British  Empire  is  applied  to 
the  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  and  its  niunerous  colo- 
nies and  possessions  in  varioxis  parts  of  the  world.  One  sixth  of 
the  entire  human  race,  scattered  over  nearly  one  sixth  of  the  globe, 
is  under  British  rule. 

Note.  —  Area  of  the  British  Empire  :  about  8,623,000  square  miles.  Popula- 
tion  :  about  200,000,000.  

PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

i^^  To  drair  the  Map  of  Enrope,  see  section  on  Map-Drawinff,  P^tBO  133* 

I.  POSITION,   SIZE,  AND   SHAPE. 

Map  Stndy.  —  1.  What  ocean  north  of  Europe  ?  2.  What  ocean  west  ?  3.  What 
seas  and  what  mountain  range  in  the  south  ?  4.  What  mountain  range,  river,  and 
sea  form  the  eastern  boundary  ?  6.  What  meridian  near  tlio  western  coast  of  the 
British  Isles  ?  6.  With  what  meridian  does  the  Ural  Mountain  range  generally  co- 
inci<le  ?  7.  Between  10°  west  long,  and  60°  east  long,  are  how  many  degrees  f 
8.  The  length  of  a  degree  of  longitude  measured  on  the  parallel  of  50°  is  about  88} 
miles  :  what,  then,  is  approximately  the  extent  of  Europe  from  east  to  west  f  9. 
What  is  the  latitude  of  North  Cape?— of  Cape  Matapan' ?  10.  The  extent  of 
Europe  from  north  to  south  (nearly  87  degrees)  is  about  what  number  of  miles  ? 

II.  In  what  zone  is  most  of  Europe  7    12.  What  parts  of  what  countries  are  in  the 
Arctic  Zone  ?    13.  What  grand  division  on  the  east  ?  —  on  the  south  ? 

1.  Extent.  —  Europe  is  the  smallest  of  the  grand  divisions,  its 
area  being  little  greater  than  that  of  the  United  States.  It  meas- 
ures about  2,500  miles  from  north  to  south,  and  nearly  3,500  miles 
in  its  greatest  extent  east  and  west. 

2.  Nations.  —  Of  the  five  grand  divisions,  Europe  contains  the 
greatest  number  of  highly  civilized  nations.  The  reason  of  this 
is  because  it  is  situated  in  the  temperate  zone,  has  great  natural 
resources  and  facilities  for  commerce,  and  is  peopled  mainly  by 
the  progressive  Caucasian  race. 


3.  Situation. — Although  loosely  called  a  aw- 
tinent,  Europe  is  really  a  western  peninsula  of 
the  Eastern  Continent,  Asia  being  the  main 
continental  mass. 

II.    OUTLINE. 

Map  Study.  —  1.  The  following  inland  seas  lielong  to 
Euroiw  :  the  White  Sea.  and  the  ISaltic  Sea  in  the  north  ; 
the  Mediterranean,  Sea  of  Mar'mora,  lilack  Sea,  and  Sea  of 
Az'ov  in  the  south  :  describe  each  of  these  seas.  2.  The 
coast  waters  on  the  Atlantic  sea-front  are  :  the  North  Sea,  or 
German  Ocean,  the  Strait  of  Dover,  the  Engli.sh  Channel, 
iind  the  Bay  of  Biscay  :  describe  each.  3.  Where  is  the 
Caspian  Seii  ?  4.  Is  it  a  sea  proper,  or  a  lake  ?  5.  What 
waters  connect  the  Baltic  Sea  with  the  North  Sea  ?  6.  What 
name  is  given  to  the  northern  part  of  the  Baltic  ?  7.  What 
names  are  given  to  the  two  eastern  inbreakiugs  of  the  Bal- 
tic ?  8.  What  large  peninsula  between  the  Baltic  and  At- 
lantic ?  9.  What  sea  between  the  British  Isles  and  the  con- 
tinental part  of  Europe  ?  10.  What  bay  west  of  France  ? 
11.  What  peninsula  at  the  southwestern  extremity  of  Eu- 
rope ?  12.  What  strait  connects  the  Mediterranean  Sea  with 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  ?  13.  The  Mediterranean  includes  the 
following  inbreakings  :  the  Gulf  of  the  Lion,  Gulf  of  Gen'oa, 
Adriatic  Sea  (with  the  gulfs  of  Taranto  and  Venice),  and 
the  .£gean  Sea :  describe  the  situation  of  each.     14.  What 

16.  What  pe;iinsula  be- 


7.  Besources. — 

als,  its  productive 
good  harbors  and  i 
situation  for  the  o 
of  the  wealth  and 

8.  Industrial  Cei 

divided  into  two 

Flamborough  Hea 

tricts,  are  all  the  'peninsula  west  of  the  Adriatic  Seat 


southwest  of  this 
culture  is  the  lead 
9.   Hannfactnres 

_  ims  rendered  that 


tween  the  Adriatic,  .Sigean,  and  the  Black  seas?  16.  What 
small  sea  between  the  Archipelago  and  the  Black  Sea  ? 
17.  MTiat  strait  connects  the  Sea  of  Marmora  with  the  Archi- 
pelago 1  —  with  the  Black  Sea  1  18.  What  peninsula  south- 
west of  the  Sea  of  Azov  ?  19.  Where  are  the  following  capes  : 
North  Cape  ?  —  the  Naze  ?  —  Cape  Clear  ?  —  Or'tegal  ?  — 
Finisterre  [fai-is-tair']  1  —  St.  Vincent  ?  —  Passaro  ?  —  Matapan  ?  20.  What  two 
large  islands  off  the  west  coast  of  Europe  ?  21.  Where  are  the  Balearic  [bal-e-ar'ic] 
Isles !  22.  Name  the  largest  four  islands  in  the  Mediterranean.  23.  In  what  direc- 
tion do  most  of  the  peninsulas  of  Europe  project  f 

4.  The  outline  is  exceedingly  irregular,  being  marked  by  numer- 
ous projections  of  the  land  and  inbreakings  of  the  sea. 

8.  The  principal  projections  of  land  are  the  peninsulas  of  Nor- 
way and  Sweden,  Denmark,  Spain  and  Portugal,  Italy,  and  Greece. 

6.  The  principal  inbreakings  of  the  ocean  are  the  White,  Baltic, 
and  North  seas,  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  and  the  Mediterranean  Sea, 
with  its  various  subdivisions. 

7.  Coast-lina  —  These  projections  and  inbreakings  give  to  Europe 
an  extent  of  coast-line  which  in  proportion  to  its  area  is  much 
greater  than  that  of  any  other  grand  division. 

Map  Study.  —  1.  Which  jrart  of  Europe  is  mountainous  f  2.  What  mountains 
extend  round  the  north  of  Italy,  and  divide  that  country  from  France,  Switzerland, 
and  Germany  ?  3.  On  the  Physical  Map  point  to  the  Alps,  —  to  their  eastern  con- 
tinuation, the  Balkan  Mountains.  4.  What  is  the  nature  of  the  surface  in  the  three 
southern  peninsulas  of  Europe  ?  5.  What  is  the  general  direction  of  the  Spanish 
ranges  ?  6.  What  mountain-chain  forms  the  backbone  of  Italy  ?  7.  What  chain 
traverses  Turkey  and  Greece  ?  8.  What  range  northwest  of  the  Blai^k  Sea  ?  9.  On 
the  Physical  Map  point  to  the  Carpathian  Mountains.  10.  What  range  south  of  the 
lower  course  of  the  Danube?  11.  What  countries  are  sejKiratcd  by  the  Pyrenees? 
12.  Where  is  Mount  Etna  t —  Mount  Vesuvius  f 


J 


94 


EUEOPE. 


AUtheii 


III.    SURFACE. 

8.  Surfaca  —  As  regards  surface,  Europe  presents  two  distinct 
regions:  (1)  A  great  plain,  in  the  northeast;  (2)  a  highland 
REGION,  in  the  southwest.  The  latter  may  be  called  High  Europe 
and  the  former  Low  Europe. 

KoTB.  —  A  diagonal  line  of  mountain-ranges  extending  from  southeast  to  north- 
west (Cau'casus,  Carpathians,  and  the  mountains  of  Central  Germany)  forms  the 
dividing  lino  hetween  the  mountainous  and  the  level  portions  of  Europe. 

9.  Surface  and  Civilization.  —  The  Great  Plain  is  mainly  occupied 
by  Russia,  though  it  extends  westward  so  as  to  include  Northern 
Germany,  Holland,  Denmark,  and  part  of  Belgium.  Southwestern, 
or  High  Europe,  with  its  varied  surface  of  h: 
and  mountain  defile,  forms  the  territory  of  the 
progressive  nations.  The  mountain-ridges,  whil- 
boundaries,  do  not  prevent  mutual  intercourse 
nations. 

10.  Mountain   Systems.  —  The    mountains    of) 
classed  under  two  general  divisions:  (1)  the 
SECONDARY  HIGHLANDS. 

11.  The  main  axis  is  formed  by  the  Alps,  whi 

Gulf  of  Genoa  in  a  curve  around  Northern  Ita' 

the  Adriatic.     The  Balkan  Mountains,  a  direct  { 

Dinaric  Alps,  prolong  the  main  axis  eastward  t( 

Note.  — The  Alps  average  over  two  miles  in  height  ;  and| 
elevation  in  Europe,  has  a  height  of  15,780  feet, 
ered  with  perpetual  snow. 

Connected  with  the  Alpine  system  are  the  ;^' 
of  the  southern  peninsulas,  —  namely,  the  Pyi  ^  \ 
Ap'ennines,  and  the  Balkan  range. 

The   Pyrenees  send  four  principal  branches 
Spain.     The  Apennines  stretch  from  the  Alps 
length  of  Italy. 

12.  The  secondary  highland  forms  a  broad  o 
tains  comprising  the  Carpathian  and  Sudet'ic 
Erzgebirge   lertdgay-lnr-gay]   and   the  Bohemia  in- 
form one  chain,  extending  1,200  miles  in  lengtlj 
in  Hungary  to  the  Danube  in  Bavaria 

13.  Detached  Uonntains.  —  In  addition  to  the  main  axis  and  the 
secondary  highland  there  are  several  detached  ranges,  as  the  moun- 
tains of  France  and  the  Scandinavian  Mountains.  The  highest 
elevations  of  the  Great  Plain  are  the  Valdai  {vahl'di]  Hills ;  these 
form  the  watershed  of  the  Eussian  rivers,  but  have  an  elevation 
of  little  over  1,000  feet.  The  Ural  and  Caucasus  ranges  are 
boundary  mountains. 

IV.    RIVERS  AND   LAKES. 

Map  Study. —  1.  Describe  the  Volga.  2.  What  large  river  of  Russia  flows  into 
the  Black  Sea  ?  3.  What  river  of  Russia  flows  into  the  White  Sea  ?  4.  A  great 
river  which  flows  into  the  Black  Sea  rises  in  the  Alps  north  of  Switzerland,  and 
takes  an  easterly  course  through  Germany,  Austria,  and  between  Roumania  and  Bul- 
garia :  what  is  its  name  t  6.  Name  three  important  tributaries  which  the  Danube 
receives.  6.  An  important  river  that  empties  into  the  North  Sea  rises  in  the  central 
Alps,  in  Switzerland,  and  flows  northward  through  Germany  and  Holland  :  what  is 
ita  name  ?  7.  One  of  the  grent  rivers  of  France  takes  a  southerly  course,  flowing 
into  the  Gulf  of  the  Lion  :  what  is  its  name  and  where  does  it  rise  ?  8.  The  largest 
river  of  Italy  rises  in  the  Alps  and  flows  into  the  Adriatic  :  what  is  its  name,  and 
what  is  its  general  direction  ?  9.  What  large  river  enters  the  English  Channel  ? 
10.  Describe  the  Vis'tula, — the  Oder,  — the  Elbe, — the  Seine  [sa7^c],  —  the  Loire 
[Iwahr],  —  the  Tagus,  —  the  Thames.  11.  On  the  Physical  Map  trace  the  course 
of  the  Volga,  —  Danube,  —  Rhine,  —  Po,  —  Loire.  12.  What  large  lakes  in  the 
Baltic  region  of  Russia  ?  13.  What  two  lakes  in  Sweden  ?  14.  Is  Europe  as  rich 
in  lakes  as  North  America  ? 


14.  Eiver  Divisions.  —  Every  part  of  Europe  is  well  watered  by 
streams,  most  of  them  navigable  for  long  distances  inland.  The 
European  rivers  may  be  classed  under  two  divisions,  —  those  of 
High  Europe  and  those  of  the  Great  Plain. 

15.  Rivers  of  High  Europe.  —  The  Alps  form  the  main  watershed 
of  High  Europe ;  and  here  rise  four  of  the  most  important  rivers 
of  this  section :  the  Danube,  Ehine,  Rhone,  and  Po. 

The  Danube  (1,800  miles  long)  is  the  second  of  the  European  rivers  ;  it  is 
the  channel  of  the  internal  trade  of  Southern  Germany,  Austria,  and  Turkey. 

The  Rhine  (880  miles  long),  which  rises  in  the  central  Alps  and  flows 
into  the  North  Sea,  is  navigable  for  steamers  to  Basle  \baM\  ;  it  is  celebrated 
both  for  its  picturesque  scenery  and  for  the  many  large  cities  on  its  banks. 


Central  Zone. 


ITorthern  Zone, 


las,  Spain,  Italy,  Greece; 
2.  Southern    France;   S. 
Turkey. 
f\.  Middle     and     Northern 
Fiance  ;    2.  British  Isles ; 

8.  Denmark ;  4.  Southern 
Norway  and  Sweden ;  5. 
Germany ;  6.  Holland  ;  7. 
Belgium  ;  8.  Switzerland  ; 

9.  Austria;  10.  Southern 
Russia. 

1.  Northern  Norway  and 
Sweden;  2.  Lapland:  3. 
Northern  Russia. 


'■( 


Marked    by     the 

four  seasons, 
with  a  gradual 
transition  from 
one  to  the  other. 


Marked  by  short 
summers  and 
long  and  severe 
winters. 


..A,. 

mulberry,  olive,  orange, 
lemon,  fig,  etc. 

The  cereals,  root-crops, 
garden  and  orchard  pro- 
ducts, flax,  hemp,  etc. 


Only  scanty  vegetation. 


VI.    RACES. 

I.  The  nations  of  Europe  comprise  four  stocks  or  races  :  1.  The  Celtic. 
2.  The  Germanic,  or  Teutonic.  3.  The  Grceco-Roman.  4.  The  Slavic,  or 
Slavonian. 

1.  The  chief  representatives  of  the  Celtic  race  are  the  French,  Irish,  High- 
land Scotch,  Welsh,  and  Belgians. 

2.  The  chief  representatives  of  the  Germanic,  or  Teutonic,  race  are  the 
English,  Scotch,  Germans,  Germanic  population  of  Austria,  Dutch,  Swedes, 
Norwegians,  and  Danes. 

3.  The  chief  representatives  of  the  Graeeo-Roman  race  are  the  Italians  and 
the  Greeks,  with  a  few  offshoots,  such  as  the  Wallachians. 

4.  The  chief  representatives  of  the  Slavic  race  are  the  Russians  and  the 
Slavic  population  of  Austria  and  the  Turkish  provinces. 

II.   The  Turks,  Hungarians,  Lapps,  and  Finns  are  all  Mongolians. 


GREAT  BRITAIN  AND    IRELAND. 


95 


GREAT   BRITAIN   AND    IRELAND. 

1.  British  Isles.  —  The  British  Isles  consist  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland,  together  with  numerous  small  adjacent  islands.  The 
island  of  Great  Britain  comprises  England  proper,  Wales,  and 
Scotland;  and  these  countries,  together  with  Ireland,  constitute 
"The  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland." 

2.  British  Empire.  —  The  name  British  Empire  is  applied  to 
the  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  and  its  numerous  colo- 
nies and  possessions  in  various  parts  of  the  world.  One  sixth  of 
the  entire  human  race,  scattered  over  nearly  one  sixth  of  the  globe, 
is  imder  British  rule. 

Note.  —  Area  of  the  British  Empire  :  about  8,628,000  square  miles.  Popula- 
tion :  about  200,000,000. 

3.  Why  interesting.  —  Great  Britain  is  to  us  the  most  interesting 
country  of  Europe,  because  the  United  States  was  settled  princi- 
pally by  the  English,  because  we  have  more  commerce  with  Great 
Britain  than  with  any  other  nation,  and  because  a  majority  of  our 
people  belong  to  the  same  race  and  speak  the  same  language  as 
the  English  people. 

4.  Government  —  The  government  is  a  hereditary  limited  mon- 
archy. The  laws  are  made  by  Parliament,  which  is  composed  of 
the  House  of  Lords  and  the  House  of  Commons.  The  members  of 
the  former  body  hold  their  seats  by  right  of  birth ;  the  members 
of  the  latter  are  elected  as  representatives  of  the  various  counties 
and  towns  of  the  United  Kingdom. 

I.    ENGLAND. 

5.  Its  Rank.  —  England  is  the  largest,  most  populous,  and  most 
important  division  of  the  United  Kingdom. 

ft  Physical  Features.  —  In  area  it  is  a  little  larger  than  the 
State  of  New  Y(irk.  The  western  section  is  generally  rugged  and 
hilly,  while  the  efustem  and  larger  part  consists  of  gentle  eleva- 
tions, broad  river-vales,  or  wide,  open  plains.  The  climate  of  Eng- 
land is  moi.st  and  temperate,  owing  to  the  influence  of  the  ocean 
and  of  the  Gulf  Stream. 


7.  Resources.  —  Its  vast  deposits  of  coal,  iron,  and  other  miner- 
als, its  productive  soil,  its  extent  of  sea-coast,  its  great  number  of 
good  harbors  and  navigable  bays  and  river-mouths,  and  its  central 
situation  for  the  commerce  of  the  world,  are  the  principal  sources 
of  the  wealth  and  power  of  England. 

8.  Industrial  Centers.  —  Industrially  considered,  England  may  be 
divided  into  two  sections,  by  a  line  joining  Portland  Bill  and 
Flamborough  Head.  Northwest  of  this,  in  the  mountainous  dis- 
tricts, are  all  the  mines  and  all  the  great  manufacturing  centers; 
southwest  of  this  is  a  region  of  plains  and  slopes,  in  which  agri- 
culture is  the  leading  pursuit. 

9.  Manufactures.  —  England's  immense  supply  of  coal  and  iron 
has  rendered  that  country,  since  the  invention  of  the  steam-engine 
and  steam  machinery,  the  greatest  of  manufacturing  countries. 
The  chief  manufactures  are  those  of  cotton,  wool,  silk,  iron,  leather, 
and  earthenware. 

Cotton  goods  are  manufactured  almost  entirely  in  the  great  towns  situated 
on  the  Lancashire  and  Cheshire  coal-fields,  Manchester  being  the  center  of  this 
industry.  The  number  of  cotton-factories  exceeds  2,000,  and  the  number  of 
hands  employed  is  over  500,000. 

Woolen  goods  are  manufactured  chiefly  in  Yorkshire,  Leeds  being  the 
center  of  this  important  and  varied  industry. 

Silk  goods  are  manufactured  in  Coventry,  Manchester,  and  London. 

Iron  is  smelted  more  or  less  on  all  the  great  coal-fields,  but  principally  in 
the  vicinity  of  Staffordshire.  The  chief  towns  for  the  manufacture  of  hard- 
ware, iron  machinery,  and  cutlery  are  Birmingham  and  Sheffield, 

10.  Agricnltnre.  —  Great  attention  is  paid  to  scientific  agricul- 
ture, and  the  surface  of  the  country  appears  as  though  finished  by 
the  landscape-gardener.  The  principal  crops  are  wheat,  oats,  bar- 
ley, potatoes,  hops,  and  garden  and  orchard  products. 

The  agricultural  produce,  though  considerable  in  amount,  is  not 
sufficient  to  feed  the  population,  and  the  deficiency  has  to  be  yearly 
supplied  by  the  im]K)rtation  of  breadstuffs  from  abroad. 

Great  attention  is  given  to  producing  the  finest  breeds  of  horses, 
sheep,  and  cattla 


96 


EUEOPK 


WINDSOR  CASTLE. 


IL  Commerce.  —  Commercially,  England  ranks  as  the  foremost 
of  countries. 

Its  trade  consists  largely  in  exchanging  manufactured  goods 
for  cotton,  wool,  and  other  raw  material,  and  for  food-staples  and 
articles  of  luxury. 

To  carry  on  this  vast  exchange,  40,000  vessels,  manned  by 
300,000  saUors,  are  employed. 

12.  London,  the  capital  of  England,  and  the  metropolis  of  the 
British  Empire,  is  the  largest  and  wealthiest  city  on  the  globe, 
and  is  the  moneyed  center  of  the  world's  commerce.  Its  popula- 
tion is  nearly  tive  millions. 

■Windsor  Castle  has  for  many  centuries  been  the  favorite  residence  of  the  kings 
and  queens  of  England.  It  stands  on  a  high  hill,  and  compiauds  a  beautiful  view 
of  the  Thames  River  and  the  surrounding  country. 

II.    WALES. 

13.  Description.  —  The  Principality  of  WaleS  is  a  mountain 
district  west  of  England.  It  is  rich  in  mines  of  copper,  iron,  and 
coal  [ 

14.  Its  Industry.  —  Mining  is  the  principal  occupation,  and  the 
centers  of  this  industry  are  Mekthye-Tydvil  and  Swansea,  which 
are  the  chief  cities  of  Wales. 


HIGHLAND   SCENE. 


III.    SCOTLAND. 

15.  Physical  Features.  —  Scot- 
land, which  forms  the  north- 
ern part  of  the  island  of  Great 
Britain,  is  divided  into  two  sec- 
tions,—  the  Highlands  in  the 
north  and  west,  and  the  Low- 
lands in  the  south  and  east. 
The  Highlands  are  in  general  rugged  and  mountainous ;  the  Low- 
lands are  diversified,  —  the  basins  of  the  Forth  and  the  Clyde 
being  a  plain,  and  the  southern  section  a  hill  country. 

16.  The  leading  industries  are  (1)  manufacturing,  (2)  agriculture, 
(3)  the  fisheries. 

Manufactures.  —  Coal  and  iron  are  found  in  large  quantities  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Glasgow,  and  from  this  fact  has  arisen  an  extensive  manufacturing 
interest.  The  chief  articles  made  are  cotton,  woolen,  and  linen  goods,  hard- 
ware, machinery,  glass-ware,  and  earthenware. 

Agriculture.  —  Fanning  is  confined  to  the  lowlands,  and  is  carried  on  with 
great  skiU.  The  grains  chiefly  cultivated  are  oats,  rye,  and  barley.  Immense 
numbers  of  sheep  and  cattle  are  fed  on  the  moors  and  highlands. 

Fisheries.  —  The  Scottish  fisheries  are  very  important  :  salmon  abound  in 
most  of  the  rivers  and  herring  and  other  fish  on  the  coasts. 

17.  Glasgow,  the  largest  city  and  the  chief  manufacturing  and 
commercial  center  of  Scotland,  ranks  as  the  third  seaport  of 
Great  Britain.  It  is  celebrated  for  its  iron  and  cotton  manufac- 
tures. On  the  Clyde,  near  Glasgow,  are  extensive  establishments 
for  building  iron  vessels. 

18.  Scottish  Isles.  —  The  islands  of  Scotland  form  three  groups, 
—  the  Orkney  Islands,  the  Hebrides  [Jieb'ri-des],  and  the  Shetland 
Islands.  Most  of  these  are  rocky,  rugged,  and  picturesque,  and 
are   inhabited  by  hardy  fishermen. 

NoTK.  —  There  is  a  striking  difference  between  the  people  of  the  Highlands  and 
those  of  the  Lowlands.  The  Highlanders  are  descendants  of  the  native  race  of 
Britain,  and  speak  a  Celtic  language  called  Gaelic.  The  inhabitants  of  the  Low- 
lands belong  to  the  same  race  as  the  English,  and  speak  the  English  language. 


MAP  STUDIES   ON  THE  BRITISH  ISLES. 


General  —  1.  Between  what  two  parallels  and  what  two  meridians  do  the  Brit- 
ish Isles  lie  ?  2.  What  is  the  longitude  of  Greenwich,  reckoning  from  Washington 
as  prime  meridian  ?  3.  What  separates  England  from  France  ?  4.  What  is  the 
latitude  of  London  ? 

England.  —  1.  Bound  England.  2.  WTiat  waters  separate  it  from  Ireland  ? 
3.  What  estuary  (firth)  between  England  and  Scotland  on  the  west  coast  ?  4.  What 
part  of  England  is  drained  by  the  Thames  River  ?  5.  What  rivers  flow  into  Bristol 
Channel  ?  6.  On  what  river  is  Liverpool  ?  7.  Describe  the  Tyne,  —  the  Humber 
—  the  Ouse,  —  the  Avon.  8.  What  mountains  form  a  partial  boundary  between 
England  and  Scotland  ?  9.  Which  part  of  England  is  mountainous  ?  10.  Name 
any  ranges.  11.  What  coast-island  in  the  southern  part  ?  12.  What  two  large 
islands  in  the  Irish  Sea  ?  13.  Where  is  London  ?  14.  Where  is  Liverpool  ? 
15.  What  city  about  30  miles  east  of  Liverpool  ?  16.  Where  is  Sheffield  1  —  Bir- 
mingham ?  —  Bristol  ?  —  Newcastle  ?  —  Oxford  ? 

■Wales.  —  1.  Bound  Wales.  2.  What  bay  on  the  west  ?  3.  What  cliannel 
south  ?     4.   What  mountain-chain  occupies  most  of  Wales  ?     5.   Name  a  peak. 


6.  What  island  is  separated  from  Wales  by  Menai  Strait  ?  7.  Where  is  Mer'thyr 
Tyd'vil  ?  —  Swansea  {swan'^']  ?  —  Cardiff  ? 

Scotland 1.  Bound  Scotland.     2.  What  separates  it  from  Ireland  ?    3.  What 

is  the  general  character  of  the  coast  ?  4  Name  the  most  important  estuaries  {firths) 
on  the  east  coast ;  —  on  the  west  coast  ?  5.  What  group  of  islands  west  ?  —  north  ? 
6.  What  mountain-range  toward  the  central  part  of  Scotland  ?  7.  Where  is  Ben 
Lomond? — Ben  Nevis?  8.  Name  the  Highland  lakes  {locks).  9.  Where  is  the 
river  Clyde  ?  —  the  Tweed  ?  10.  Locate  Edinburgh  ;  —  Glasgow  ;  —  Aberdeen' ;  — 
Dundee'. 

Ireland.  —  1.  What  waters  divide  Ireland  from  the  island  of  Great  Britain  ? 
2.  Which  is  nearer  the  United  States,  Ireland  or  England  ?  3.  Where  is  Donegal' 
Bay  ?  4.  What  bay  in  the  east-central  part  ?  5.  Into  what  does  the  Shannon  flow  ? 
6.  Where  is  Cape  Clear  ?  7.  Bantry  Bay  ?  8.  Galway  Bay  ?  9.  What  two  lakes 
in  the  north  of  Ireland  ?  10.  Where  is  Limerick  ?  —  Dublin  ?  —  Cork  ?  —  Belfast  ? 
11.  Valentia  Island  is  the  terminus  of  one  of  the  Atlantic  cables  :  where  is  that 
island  ?    12.   Where  is  Queenstown  ? 


SHETLAND 

ISLES 

AND 

ORKNEY  IS. 
Sum4  Sailt  OMjfap 


U*        Lmal      Time      when      11  •" 


W       apact         l/>nalluaf 


local   Time     when    yoon  at  i        'Wanhlngton 


98 


GEEAT   BKITAIN   AND   IRELAND. 


IV.    IRELAND. 

19.  Extent  —  Ireland  is  a  beautiful  and  fertile  island,  about  the 
size  of  the  State  of  Maine. 

Area,  32,500  square  miles. 

20.  Physical  Features.  —  The  surface  is  mountainous  or  hilly 
along  the  sea-coast,  while  the  interior  is  a  level  or  undulating 
plain,  with  extensive  peat-bogs.  The  climate  is  mild  and  pleasant, 
and  on  account  of  the  abundance  of  rain  and  the  freshness  of  the 
grass  and  foliage,  Ireland  is  often  called  the  "  Emerald  Isle." 

Note.  —  One  of  the  most  remarkable  natural  curiosities  in  Ireland  is  the  Giant's 
Causeway,  on  the  northern  coast.  It  is  comiK)se<l  of  huge  columns  of  basalt,  which 
project  more  than  1,000  feet  into  the  sea.  The  Lakc^  of  Killar'ney,  in  the  southern 
part,  are  celebrated  for  their  picturesque  beauty. 

2L  Besources.  —  Coal  occurs  in  many  parts  of  Ireland,  but  it  is 
inferior  to  the  English  coal,  and  is  comparatively  little  worked. 
Peat,  which  is  dug  from  the  bogs,  is  the  fuel  used  by  the  laboring 
population.  Iron  is  found  in  many  places,  but,  owing  to  the 
scarcity  of  coal,  it  is  little  mined.  The  iisheries  around  the  Irish 
coast  are  naturally  of  the  highest  value,  but  they  are  comparatively 
neglected. 

22.  Political  Divisions.  —  Politically  it  is  divided  into  four  prov- 
inces, —  Ulster,  Leinster,  Munster,  and  Connaught,  —  representing 
four  ancient  kingdoms,  and  these  are  subdivided  into  thirty-two 
counties. 

23.  Agriculture.  —  Ireland  is  chiefly  a  grazing  country,  cattle- 
raising  and  dairy-farming  constituting  the  most  characteristic 
pursuits  of  its  population  in  general.  Oats  form  the  largest 
grain-crop.  Potatoes  take  the  next  place  in  value  and  form  a 
principal  article  of  food.  Flax  is  largely  grown  in  Ulster,  to 
supply  the  demand  of  the  linen  manufacturers. 

24.  Manufactures.  —  Of  manufactures,  linen  takes  the  first  rank  ; 


the  manufacture  of  cotton  and  woolen  fabrics  is  also  carried  on, 
and  lace  is  extensively  made. 

26.  The  exports  consist  chiefly  of  live-stock,  agricultural  produce, 
and  the  productions  of  the  loom. 

26.  Population.  —  Ireland  is  less  populous  now  than  at  a  former 
period.  It  has  about  five  and  a  half  millions  of  inhabitants,  but  in 
1841  it  had  over  eight  millions. 

27.  Education.  —  In  Ireland  elementary  instruction  is  furnished 
by  a  numerous  body  of  schools,  under  the  direction  of  a  Board  of 
National  Education. 

28.  Cities.  —  There  are  four  cities  with  a  population  of  50,000  or 
upwards.  These  are  Dublin  (3.38,000),  the  metropolis,  a  beauti- 
ful city  and  a  seat  of  culture ;  Belfast,  the  center  of  the  linen 
manufacture  and  trade ;  Cork,  noted  for  its  splendid  harbor,  in 
which  is  Queenstown ;  and  Limerick,  a  manufacturing  city. 


BEFEBEKCE  TABLE  OP  THE  FBIKCIPAL  BBITISH  COLOKIES. 


Europe  .  ./Gibraltar. 
\  Malta. 

r  Dominion  of  Canada 

Newfoundland. 

r  Hindostan. 

British  Honduras. 

Burmah. 

Jamaica. 

Asia 

Ceylon. 

In  America  . . . 

Trinidad. 

Hong-Kong. 

Barbadoes. 

Aden. 

The  Bahamas. 

^Singapore. 

The  Bermudas. 

* 

British  Guiana. 

Cape  Colony. 

'^  Falkland  Islands. 

Sierra  Leone. 

Africa... J 

Gold  Coast 

Natal. 

r  Australia. 

St.  Helena. 

In  Oceania  .  .  j 

Tasmania. 

.  Mauritius. 

I  New  Zealand. 

REFERENCE   TABLE   OF  THE    LARGEST   CITIES    IN    GREAT   BRITAIN    AND    IRELAND. 


Nunei. 


Popnlation. 


Characteristica 


London. 
Mancheiter. 

LlTerpool. 

Birmingham. 

Leeds. 

Sheffield. 


Bristol. 

206,000 

Nottingham. 

112,000 

Bradford. 

180,000 

Newcastle. 

145,000 

HuU. 

161,000 

Portsmouth. 

128,000 

Stoke-npon-Trent 

115,000 

Wolverhampton. 

165,000 

Sunderland. 

126,000 

Brighton. 

107,000 

Leicester. 

122,000 

Cambridge. 

35,000 

Oxford. 

each. 

Greenwich. 

60,000 

4,765,000 
393,000 


552,000 


400,000 


809,000 


286,000 


(See  text.) 

In  the  center  of  the  Lancashire  coal-flelds,  is  the  chief  cotton 
manufacturing  city  on  the  globe  ;  its  manufactures  of  ma- 
chinery, carpets,  and  siilc  are  also  very  extensive. 

Ranlis  in  commerce  as  the  second  city,  and  is  the  chief  sea- 
port for  the  American  trade ;  its  magnificent  doclcs  extend 
many  miles,  and  contain  the  ships  of  every  nation. 

In  the  Staffordshire  coal-fleld  and  the  richest  iron  district, 
is  the  greatest  city  of  the  world  for  the  manufacture  of 
engines,  machinery,  and  hardware. 

In  the  Yorkshire  coal-field,  is  the  greatest  woolen  raannfac- 
turing  city ;  it  also  maizes  thread,  glass-ware,  steam-engines, 
and  machinery. 

Is  noted  for  its  manufacture  of  cutlery,  steel  and  plated  ware, 
and  heavy  iron  and  brass  castings. 

Is  an  important  manufacturing  and  commercial  city. 

Is  the  center  of  the  lace  and  hosiery  manufacture  and  trade. 

Is  the  center  of  the  manufacture  of  worsted  dress-goods. 

In  the  center  of  a  rich  coal  district,  has  a  great  coal-trade, 
extensive  iron  ship-building,  and  manufactories  of  glass, 
iron-ware,  and  chemicals. 

Is  an  important  seaport 

Is  the  grand  naval  arsenal  of  the  kingdom. 

Is  noted  for  the  manufacture  of  china-ware  and  earthenware. 

Is  largely  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  hardware. 

Is  largely  engaged  in  the  coal-trade. 

Is  a  famous  watering-place. 

Is  a  great  center  for  the  manufacture  of  woolen  stockings. 

Are  famous  for  their  universities,  — the  seats  of  the  higher 
education  in  England. 

Is  famous  for  its  observatory. 


Names. 


"WALES. 

Merthyr-Tydvil. 

Swansea. 

SCOTLAND. 

Glasgow. 


Edinburgh. 
Dundee. 

Aberdeen. 

Greenock. 

Paisley. 

Lelth. 

IRELAND. 

Dublin. 

Belfast. 
Cork. 

Limerick. 

Waterford. 

Londonderry. 


Population. 


49,000 
70,000 

611,000 


228,000 
142,000 

105,000 

70,000 
66,000 
45,000 


838,000 

176,000 
78,000 

60,000 

30,000 

25,000 


Characteristics. 


Is  the  leading  commercial  city  of  Wales,  and  is  largely  en- 
gaged in  the  iron  manufacture. 

Is  largely  engaged  in  copper-smelting  and  in  the  iron  manu- 
facture. 


Is  the  largest  city  in  Scotland,  and  also  one  of  the  largest 
cities  in  the  United  Kingdom.  It  is  the  principal  seat  of 
the  Scottish  iron  and  cotton  manufactures,  carries  on  ex- 
tensive iron  ship-building,  and  varied  manufactures. 

Is  the  literary  capital  of  Scotland. 

Is  an  important  seaport,  and  is  largely  engaged  in  the  manu- 
facture of  linen  goods. 

Is  the  principal  town  in  the  north  of  Scotland,  and  is  noted 
for  its  ship-building  and  varied  manufactures. 

Is  an  important  seaport,  connected  with  Glasgow. 

Is  engaged  in  making  calicoes,  thread,  shawls,  and  fancy  goods. 

Is  the  seaport  through  which  Edinburgh  carries  on  its  trade. 


The  metropolis  of  Ireland,  is  a  beautiful  city  and  seat  of 
culture.    Has  extensive  porter-breweries. 

Is  the  chief  seat  of  the  linen  manufacture  and  trade. 

Is  noted  for  its  fine  harbor,  and  is  largely  engaged  in  ship- 
building and  the  manufacture  of  machinery,  engines,  ete. 

Is  largely  engaged  in  trade  and  manufacturing  linen,  cotton, 
and  woolen  goods,  paper,  etc. 

Is  a  great  seat  of  the  cross-channel  tra.de  to  England,  and  ex- 
ports large  quantities  of  live-stock  andagricultural  produce. 

Is  a  place  of  considerable  trade. 


FRAJ^CK 


99 


FRANCE. 

L   Its  Bank.  —  France  is  one  of  the  oldest,  most  powerful,  and 
most  highly  civilized  nations  of  Europe. 
Area,  204,000  square  miles.     Popdlation,  37,500,000. 

2.  Extent  —  In  area  France  is  somewhat  larger  than  California, 
but  not  so  lai-ge  as  Texas. 

3.  Surface.  —  The  eastern  part  is  hilly  and  mountainous;  the 
western  part  consists  of  three  valleys  sloping  to  the  Atlantic, 
and  bordering  on  the  three  rivers,  the  Seine,  the  Loire,  and  the 
Garonne.  The  valley  of  the  Ehone,  in  the  eastern  part,  opens 
southward  to  the  Mediterranean. 

4.  Climate  and  Vegetation,  —  The  climate  varies  from  cool-tem- 
perate in  the  north  to  warm-temperate  in  the  soutL  In  passing 
from  the  English  Channel  to  the  Mediterranean  Sea  the  cbarac- 
ter  of  the  vegetation  shows  the  gradual  rise  of  temperature.  The 
north  is  the  land  of  wheat,  the  center  the  land  of  the  vine,  and 
the  south  the  land  of  the  oliva 

5.  Advantages.  —  France  has 
many  natural  advantages,  among 
which  are :  (1)  a  generally  fer- 
tile soil;  (2)  extensive  forests; 
(3)  abundance  of  coal  and  iron ; 
and  (4)  a  situation  on  the  At- 
lantic and  the  Mediterranean 
highly  favorable  to  commerce. 

6.  The  leading  industries  are 
agriculture,  manufacturing,  and 
commerce. 

7.  Agricoltore.  —  About  three 
fifths  of  the  population  are  en- 
gaged in  agricultural  occupations, 
and  about  one  half  of  the  whole 
country  is  under  the  plough.  The 
principal  objects  of  cultivation 
are  :  In  the  northern  section 
grains  and  root-crops,  mth  hemp 
and  flax;  in  the  central  and 
southern  sections  maize  and  the 
vine  and  olive,  together  with  the  mulberry-tree,  on  the  leaves  of 
which  the  silk-worm  feeds. 

The  Vineyards.  —  The  cultivation  of  the  vine  forms  an  important  and  dis- 
tinctive feature  in  French  agnculture.  The  vineyards  cover  about  5,000,000 
acres.  They  are  most  numerous  in  the  region  adjacent  to  the  course  of  the 
Garonne,  and  extend  thence  across  the  country  in  a  southeast  direction  to 
the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean.  The  famous  Champagne  vineyards  are  in 
the  valley  of  the  Mame. 

Map  Study.  —  {Map  of  Europe,  page  92 ;  also  Central   Europe,  page  100.) 

I.  What  are  the  boundaries  of  France  ?  2.  Which  are  natural  boundaries  ?  3.  France 
lies  between  the  parallels  of  43°  and  50°  north  latitude  :  which  of  the  Atlantic  sea- 
board States  in  our  own  country  lie  in  the  same  latitude  ?  {See  Map  of  the  United 
States.)  4.  What  separates  France  from  England  ?  5.  Measure  by  the  scale  of  miles 
the  distance  from  Calais  to  Dover.  {See  Map  of  the  British  Isles,  page  97.)  6.  What 
is  the  name  of  the  greatest  inbrealdng  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean  ?  7.  What  gulf  in  the 
south  t  8.  Which  part  of  France  is  mountainous  ?  9.  Name  some  of  the  principal 
ranges.    10.  What  mountains  between  France  and  Italy  ? —  between  France  and  Spain  I 

II.  Describe  the  course  of  the  Seine.  —  of  the  Loire,  —  of  the  Garonne'.  12.  What 
large  river  flows  into  the  Mediterranean  ?  13.  Where  is  Paris  ?  14.  What  seaport 
on  the  Mediterranean  east  of  the  mouth  of  the  Rhone  1  15.  On  what  river  is 
Bordeaux  [bor-do']  ?  16.  On  what  river  is  Nantes  [nanl]  1  17.  What  seaport  at  the 
mouth  of  the  river  on  which  Paris  is  situated  1  18,  Locate  Lyons,  —  St.  Etienne 
[ay-lyenf],  — Toulouse',  —  Brest,  — Nice  [neeee]. 


A  VINTAQI  ftOENB. 


8.  Manufactures.  —  In  the  extent  and  value  of  her  manufactur- 
ing industry  France  ranks  second  only  to  Great  Britain. 

The  leading  manufactures  are  those  of :  1.  Wine,  of  which  France  pro- 
duces more  than  any  other  country,  —  from  1,500,000,000  to  2,000,000,000 
gallons  annually  (value  $  350,000,000),  and  brandy,  of  which  large  quantities 
are  distilled.  2.  Silks  and  satins,  in  the  manufacture  of  which  it  surpasses  all 
other  countries.  3.  Broadcloths  and  casdmeres  of  the  finest  quality.  4.  ArticU* 
of  taste  and  fashion,  such  as  jewelry,  watches,  ribbons,  laces,  shawls,  gloves, 
hats  and  bonnets,  artificial  flowers,  porcelain,  perfumery,  etc  In  the  making 
of  all  these  France  leads  the  world 

9.  Commerce.  —  The  foreign  commerce  of  France  consists  prin- 
cipally of  the  importation  of  raw  material  and  tropical  productions, 
and  the  exportation  of  manufactured  articles  and  the  produce  of 
her  vineyards. 

10.  Education.  —  In  literature,  science,  and  art  France  has 
long  been  distinguished;  but  until  recently  the  education  of. the 
great  body  of  the  French  people  was  almost  entirely  neglected. 
Now,  however,  an  organized  system  of  popular  instruction  is  in 
operation  tmder  the  control  of  the  government. 

IL  GoTemment — During  the 
present  century  many  revolutions 
resulting  in  changes  in  the  form 
of  government  have  occurred  in 
France.  At  present  the  govern- 
ment is  a  provisional  Republic. 

la  Cities.— Paris  (2,225,000) 
is  second  only  to  London  in 
wealth  and  trade.  It  is  the  most 
beautiful  and  attractive  of  cities, 
and  is  the  world's  center  of 
modern  ait,  fashion,  and  pleas- 
ure, as  London  is  of  commerce 
and  of  business.  It  is  distin- 
guished for  its  magnificent  pub- 
lic buildings,  public  gardens,  and 
places  of  amusement,  and  for  its 
great  libraries,  museums,  art-gal- 
leries, and  scientific  schools,  as 
also  for  the  manufacture  and  sale 
of  articles  of  art,  ornament,  and 
fashion. 
In  addition  to  Paris  the  most  important  cities  are :  — 


Name*. 

Population. 

Lyoni. 

875,000 

Horseillei. 

360,000 

Bordeaux. 

221,000 

LiUe. 

178,000 

Toulouse. 

140,000 

Rantea. 

120,000 

St.  Etienne. 

126,000 

Sonen. 

103,000 

Tonlon. 

80,000 

Havre. 

92,000 

Brest. 

70,000^1 
40,000  / 

Cherbourg. 

Characteristica. 


Is  the  second  city  in  rank,  and  the  chief  seat  for  the  manufacture  of 

ailks,  satins,  and  velvets ;  over  100,000  persons  are  here  employed 

In  this  industry. 
Is  the  greatest  seaport,  and  has  varied  manufactures  and  extensive 

trade  in  silks,  wines,  brandies,  etc. 
Is  the  center  of  the  red  wine  trade. 

Makes  cotton,  linen,  and  woolen  goods,  beet-root  sugar,  etc. 
Has  extensive  steel-works  and  woolen-mills. 
Noted  for  ship-building,  manufactures,  and  commerce. 
In  the  midst  of  a  rich  coal  region ;  makes  cutlery  and  haidwan; — 

the  Birmingham  of  France. 
Makes  cotton  goods ;  —  the  Manchester  of  France. 
Is  the  great  naval  dockyard  of  France. 
Is  the  seaport  of  Paris  and  Rouea 

Important  naval  stations. 


Foreign  Possessions. — The  principal  foreign  possessions  are  :  1.  Algeria,  in 
Africa.  2.  French  Guiana.  3.  Martinique  and  Guadaloupe,  in  the  West  India 
Islands.  4.  The  Marquesas  Islands  and  New  Caledonia,  in  Polynesia,  and  Corsica, 
in  the  Mediterranean. 


100 


=^ 


12  « 


Zoral  Tinifi  wTten 


4      Zongitufif 


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THE  GERMAN  EMPIRK 


101 


THE   GERMAN   EMPIRE. 

L  Its  Composition.  —  Politically  the  Geimau  Empire  (estab- 
lished in  1871)  consists  of  twenty-six  States.  The  chief  of  these 
are  the  Kingdom  of  Prussia  —  which  embraces  two  thirds  of  the 
area  of  Germany  and  a  majority  of  its  population  —  and  the 
three  kingdoms  of  Bavaria,  Saxony,  and  Wiirtemberg.  The  other 
twenty-two  States  are  small  in  extent,  and  are  variously  called 
grand  duchies,  duchies,  principalities,  etc. 

The  King  of  Prussia  has  the  title  of  German  Emperor. 

Note.  — Each  State  in  the  Empire  has  its  own  ruler  (king,  prince,  etc.)  and  its 
own  legislature,  bnt  in  all  general  matters  the  imperial  government  has  authority 
somewhat  similar  to  that  of  the  federal  government  in  our  own  country.  Each  State 
sends  representatives  to  the  imperial  parliament,  called  the  Keichstag. 

2.  Extent  —  The  area  of  Germany  is  nearly  the  same  as  that  of 
Franc*;  its  population  is  about  the  same  as  that  of  the  United  States. 

Area,  212,000  square  miles.     Population,  45,250,000. 

3.  Physical  Features.  —  The  northern  part  of  Germany  belongs 
to  the  great  European  plain,  the  southern  part  rises  into  rugged 
mountains  enclosing  nimierous  valleys.  The  country  is  remarka- 
bly well  watered,  having  over  fifty  navigable  rivers.  It  has  a  sea- 
coast  bordering  on  the  North  and  the  Baltic  seas. 

4.  Besonrces.  —  The  natm'al  wealth  of  Germany  is  found  in 
(1)  its  productive  soil  in  the  plains  and  valleys;  (2)  its  exten- 
sive forests  in  the  mountain  regions;  and  (3)  its  rich  supply  of 
iron,  coal,  copper,  zinc,  and  other  minerals. 

6.  The  leading  industries  are  agriculture,  manufacturing,  mining, 
and  commerce. 


Map  Study. —  1.  Bound  the  German  Empire.  2.  What  two  seas  on  the  north  ? 
3.  How  do  France  and  Germany  compare  as  regards  sea-coast  ?  4.  Which  part 
is  mountainous  7  5.  What  is  the  cluuracter  of  the  northern  and  eastern  parts  ? 
6.  Name  the  boundary  mountains  on  the  south.  7.  What  mountains  west  of  the 
Rhine  ?  8.  In  what  direction  do  most  of  the  rivers  of  Germany  flow  ?  9.  Name 
three  important  rivers  flowing  into  the  North  Sea.  10.  Name  two  important  rivers 
flowing  into  the  Baltic.  11.  What  great  river  flowing  eastward  takes  its  rise  in 
the  southern  part  ?  12.  Which  part  of  Germany  is  occupied  by  Prussia  ?  13.  Where 
is  Saxony?  —  BavariaY — Wttrtemberg  T  14.  What  divisions  of  Germany  border  on 
the  Rhine?  16.  Where  is  Berlin  ?  16.  By  what  river  has  Hamburg  an  outlet  into 
the  North  Sea  ?  17.  Name  two  seaports  on  the  Baltic  18.  In  what  State  is  Mu- 
nich » —  Dresden  ?  —  Stuttgart  1  19.  On  which  bank  of  the  Rhine  is  Cologne  T  — 
Dusseldorf  ?    20.  Name  a  city  in  Alsace. 


Agriculttire.  —  Tilling  the  soil  forms  the  occupation  of  three  fourths  of  the 
German  people.  The  principal  crops  are  rye  (the  grain  most  used  by  the 
people),  wheat,  oats,  and  potatoes  ;  the  vine  grows  in  the  Rhine  provinces,  and 
tobacco,  flax,  hemp,  and  beet-root  are  cultivated  in  many  districts. 

Manufactures.  —  In  manufactures  Germany  is  behind  England  and  France ; 
but  various  branches  of  manufacturing  industry,  as  the  making  of  woolen, 
linen,  and  leather  goods,  of  wine  and  beer,  and  of  paper,  glass-ware,  etc.,  are 
very  extensively  carried  on. 

Commerce.  —  Germany  has  considerable  foreign  commerce,  largely  with 
the  United  States  and  England.  Wheat,  wines,  wool,  and  manufactures  are 
the  principal  exports.     The  chief  seaports  are  Hamburg  and  Bremen. 

6.  Edncation.  —  In  education  Germany  is  the  foremost  country 
in  Europe.  It  has  a  fine  system  of  public  schools,  and  education 
is  compulsory.  The  numerous  universities  are  the  largest  and 
most  complete  in  the  world. 

7.  Cities.  —  Berlin  (1,125,000),  the  largest  city,  is  the  political 
and  literary  capital  of  the  German  Empire.  The  cities  next  in 
importance  are :  — 


NameB. 

Population. 

CharacterUtics. 

410,000 

One  of  the  "  Free  Cities,"  is  the  chief  seaport  and  commercial 
metrojiolla  of  Germany ;  numerous  lines  of  steamers  connect  it 

" 

with  New  Yorlc 

Breilau. 

272,000 

Is  the  greatest  wool  market  of  Europe,  and  has  extensive  trade 
and  manufactures. 

Dresden. 

220,000 

Is  the  capital  of  Saxony,  and  the  center  of  the  coal  and  iron  interest 
of  that  iiingdom ;  it  has  extensive  glass  and  imrcelaln  worlis,  and 
is  noted  for  its  art-galleries. 

Munich. 

230,000 

Is  the  capital  of  Bavaria,  and  is  noted  for  ita  univeraity,  its  fine 
art-gallery,  etc. 

Cologne, 

145,000 

Is  tlie  chief  commercial  city  of  the  Rbine  provinces,  and  lias  manu- 

factories and  distilleries. 

K9nig«l)erg. 

140,000 

Is  the  chief  commercial  city  of  Eastern  Prussia,  and  carries  on  a 
large  export  trade  in  agricultural  produce. 

Magdeburg. 

137,000 

Carries  on  extensive  trade. 

Leipsio. 

140,000 

Is  noted  for  its  fair,  its  great  boolc-trsde,  and  its  university. 

Hanover. 

122,000 

Is  the  chief  city  of  the  Kingdom  of  Hanover,  and  was  its  capital 
until  that  Itingdom  became  a  part  of  Prussia  in  1806. 

Santzio. 

106,000 

Is,  from  its  situation  on  the  Baltic,  a  great  grain  port ;  tt  has  also 
extensive  manufactures. 

Trankfort- 

j.  149,000  i 

Is  the  center  of  the  inland  trade  of  Germany,  and  baa  great  annual 

on-the-Main. 

trading-fairs. 

Bremen. 

112,000 

Ranlis  next  to  Hamburg  in  commerce. 

Stuttgart. 

112,000 

The  capital  of  Wttrtemberg,  is  lieautifiilly  situated,  and  is  renowned 
for  its  art  and  culture. 

Strasburg. 

104,000 

Was  wpn  nrom  France  in  the  war  of  1870-71 :  it  is  famous  (br  Its 
cathedral. 

102 


EUEOPE. 


THE  AUSTRIAN  EMPIRE. 

1.  Its  Composition.  —  The  Austrian  Empire,  or  Austro-Hungarian 
Monarchy  (its  olficial  designation  since  1868),  consists  of  two  main 
divisions,  —  Austria  proper  and  the  Kingdom  of  Hungary,  together 
with  a  number  of  other  states  and  provinces  under  the  rule  of  the 
Emperor  of  Austria. 

The  States.  —  The  Austro-Hungarian  Monarchy  is  made  up  of, — 1.  The  German 
States,  in  the  west  and  northwest,  including  one  third  of  the  Kmpire.  2.  The  Hun- 
garian States,  including  Hungary,  Transylvania,  and  some  parts  farther  south, 
comprising  nearly  one-half  of  the  Empire.  3.  The  Polish  States  to  the  north  of  the 
Carpathian  Mountains,  including  about  one  sixth  of  the  Empire.  To  these  may  be 
added  Crotia,  Bosnia,  and  Herzegovina,  which  have  lately  been  put  under  the  pro- 
tection of  Austria  by  the  results  of  the  war  between  Russia  and  Turkey  and  the 
decision  of  the  Berlin  Conference. 

2.  Extent.  —  Its  area  is  greater  than  that  of  Germany  or  France, 

and  its  population  less. 
Area,  265,000  square  miles.     Population,  40,000,000. 

3.  Surface.  —  Three  fourths  of  the  Austrian  Territory  is  moun- 
tainous. The  three  principal  chains  of  mountains,  each  of  them 
sending  out  many  branches,  are : — 

1.  The  Alps  (under  various  names),  occupying  nearly  the  entire  southern  belt  of 
the  German  Provinces,  as  well  as  lUyria  and  Dalmatia. 

2.  The  Carpathians,  along  the  whole  northern  boundary  of  Hungary. 

3.  The  Bohemian  Forest,  Ore  Mountains  {ErzgMrge),  and  Giant  Mountains 
{Riesengebi/rge),  enclosing  the  plain  of  Bohemia. 

The  three  principal  plains  are  the  great  plain  of  Hungary,  formed 
by  the  Danube,  the  plain  of  Bohemia,  drained  by  the  Elbe,  and  the 
plain  of  Gallicia,  drained  by  the  Dniester. 

4  Besonrces.  —  The  natural  wealth  of  this  country  consists  of 
its  extensive  fertile  plains,  favorable  to  agriculture  and  pasturage, 
its  great  forests,  and  its  rich  mining  resources. 

5.  The  leading  industries  are  agriculture,  mining,  and  manufac- 
turing. 

Agriculture. — Wheat,  maize,  and  other  cereals,  together  with  the  vine,  flax, 
hemp,  and  tobacco,  are  largely  grown.  The  plains  east  of  the  Danube  support 
great  herds  of  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep. 

Mining.  —  Platina  excepted,  all  metals  abound  in  Austria,  —  gold,  silver, 
quicksilver,  copper,  tin,  lead,  and  iron.  Coal-beds  of  vast  extent  are  found. 
Of  rock-salt  there  is  a  bed  several  hundred  miles  in  length  in  Gallicia,  of  which 
only  a  small  portion  is  worked  at  a  gigantic  mine  named  Wieliczka  [yoe-litch'hi], 
near  Cracow. 

Manufactures.  — Austria  has  recently  been  making  rapid  advances  in  man- 
iifacturing.  The  principal  manufactures  are  cotton,  linen,  and  woolen  goods, 
iron-ware,  chemical  preparations,  and  glass-ware.  Hungary  produces  more 
wine  than  any  other  country  except  France. 

&  Commerce.  —  As  Austria  has  but  little  sea-coast  her  foreign 
trade  is  limited.  The  only  important  seaport  is  Trieste.  The 
Danube  is  the  great  channel  for  internal  trade. 


UAF    STUDIES. 

Austria.  —  (Map  of  Central  Europe,  page  100.)  1.  Bound  Austria.  2.  What 
are  the  principal  mountain-ranges  ?  3.  How  has  Austria  an  outlet  to  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  ?  4.  Describe  the  course  of  the  Danube.  5.  What  are  its  chief 
tributaries  ?  6.  What  is  the  principal  river  of  Bohemia  ?  7.  In  which  State 
is  Lake  Ba'laton  ?  8.  Where  is  Hungary  ?  —  Bohemia  ?  —  Tyrol  ?  9.  Where  is 
Vienna,  the  capital  ?  10.  Where  is  Szegedin  [seg-ed-in''\  ?  —  Pesth  ?  —  Prague  ?  — 
Trieste  [trce-esV'\i. 

Russia  in  Europe.  —  {Map  of  Europe,  page  92.)  1.  Bound  Russia.  2.  Between 
what  parallels  and  what  meridians  is  it  included  ?  3.  In  which  zone  is  the  greater 
part  ?  4.  What  mountain-range  forms  part  of  the  eastern  boundary  ?  5.  What  is 
the  name  given  to  the  chief  heights  in  the  interior?  6.  What  relation  between 
the  rivers  of  Russia  and  these  hills  ?  7.  Name  the  principal  rivers  which  enter 
the  Black  Sea,  —  the  Caspian,  —  the  Baltic,  —  the  White  Sea.  8.  What  and  where 
is  the  capital  of  Russia  ?  9.  Where  is  Moscow  ?  10.  Name  the  princij>al  ports  on 
the  Baltic,  —  on  the  Black  Sea,  —  on  the  Caspian. 


7.  Fopnlation.  —  The  people  of  the  various  parts  of  the  Austrian 

Empire  differ  widely  in  race,  language,  ideas,  manners,  and  religion. 

Note.  —  About  one  half  of  the  population  belong  to  the  Slavonic  race  and  one 
fifth  to  the  Germanic  ;  one  sixth  are  Magyars,  and  the  rest  are  made  up  of  Rouma- 
nians, Jews,  Gypsies,  Greeks,  etc.  The  number  of  languages  and  dialects  spoken  in 
Austria  exceeds  twenty,  but  German  and  Hungarian  are  the  official  languages.  More 
than  three  fourths  of  the  population  are  Roman  Catholics. 

8.  Cities. — Vienna  (1,105,000),  the  capital  of  the  monarchy,  is 
an  important  manufacturing  and  commercial  center,  and  the  finest 
city  of  Central  Europe.     The  cities  next  in  importance  are :  — 


Names. 

Population. 

Festh. 

360,000 

(wilhBwda.) 

Prague. 

162,000 

Trieste. 

144,000 

Lemberg. 

110,000 

OrftU. 

98,000 

BrUnn. 

85,000 

Szegedin. 

60,000 

Cracow. 

66,000 

Charactorifltics. 


la  the  chief  ComittGrcial  city  of  Hungary ;  it  is  connected  by  a  sus- 
pension-bridge with  Buda. 

Is  the  largest  and  most  commercial  city  of  Bohemia,  of  which,  while 
an  independent  kingdom,  it  was  the  capital. 

Is  a  commercial  and  manufacturing  city,  and  the  only  great  seaport. 

Is  the  trading  center  of  Gallicia. 

Has  flourishing  manufactures  and  an  extensive  trade. 

Is  noted  for  its  extensive  woolen  and  other  manufactures. 

Is,  next  to  Pesth,  the  most  important  commercial  city  of  Hungary. 

Is  one  of  the  famous  old  cities  of  independent  Poland. 


THAVELINQ    IN    RUSSIA. 


RUSSIA   IN  EUROPE. 

L  Its  Bank.  —  Russia  is  the  most  extensive  of  empires,  include 
ing  one  half  of  Europe  and  one  third  of  Asia.     It  is  about  twice 

the  size, 
and  has 
nearly 
double 
the  popu- 
lation, of 
the  Unit- 
ed States. 

Note.  —  Area  of  the  entire  Empire,  8,200,000 
square  miles  ;  of  European  Russia,  2,180,000 
square  mUes.  Population  of  the  entire  Empire, 
86,000,000  ;  of  European  Russia,  75,000,000. 

2,  Physical  Features.  —  The  surface 
of  European  Eussia  is  a  vast  plain, 
broken  only  by  a  slight  central  eleva- 
tion (the  Valdai  Hills),  which  forms  the  watershed  of  the  Eussian 
river  system.     The  rivers  are  the  largest  in  Europe. 

Northern  Eussia  consists  mainly  of  immense  moss-covered  plains, 
marshy  in  summer  and  frozen  in  winter,  with  extensive  forests  in 
its  southern  districts ;  Central  Eussia  improves  progressively  to- 
ward the  south,  where  there  is  much  fertile  land ;  Southern  Eussia 
consists  of  broad  treeless  plains,  or  steppes. 

The  climate  is  marked  by  extremes  of  temperature,  the  summers 
being  short  and  hot,  while  in  the  north  the  winter  is  eight  months 
long  and  the  cold  most  intense. 

3.  Besources.  —  The  natural  wealth  of  Eussia  consists  in  her 
great  extent  of  grain-growing  soil,  the  advantages  for  cattle-raising 
presented  by  her  grassy  steppes,  her  vast  forests,  and  her  rich  mines 
of  iron,  copper,  platina,  etc. 

4.  The  leading  industries  are  agriculture  and  commero«,  which 

are  of  prime  importance,  and  manufacturing,  which  is  of  secondary 

importance. 

Agriculture.  —  The  grain  most  extensively  used  is  rye,  and  the  black  bread 
made  of  it  is  the  common  food  of  the  peasantry. 


SWEDEN  AND   NO  I;  WAY,  AND   DENMAEK. 


103 


The  most  fertile  district  is  the  Ukraine,  in  the  basin  of  the  Dnieper ; 
wheat  is  the  great  crop  of  this  part. 

Hemp  and  flax  are  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  Russian  soil  and  cUmate,  and 
immense  quantities  of  both  are  grown  all  over  the  coimtry. 

Over  the  southern  plains  range  multitudes  of  cattle,  sheep,  and  horsee. 

Commerce.  —  The  commerce  is  large  and  increasing.  The  chief  exports 
are  wheat,  wool,  flax,  tallow,  hemp,  timber,  potash,  hides,  furs,  iron.  Russian 
commerce  is  chiefly  with  England  and  the  United  States,  but  with  China  there 
is  also  a  great  overland  trade,  the  principal  item  in  which  is  tea. 

The  principal  ports  are  St  Petersburg  and  Riga  [re'ga]  on  the  Baltic,  and 
Odea'sa  on  the  Black  Sea. 

The  inland  trade  is  carried  on  mainly  at  great  annual  ikirs ;  that  at  Nijni 
Novgorod  [nezh'ne  nov-go-rod']  is  the  largest  in  the  world. 

Manufactores. — The  only  articles  in  the  manufacture  of  which  Russia  can 
successfully  compete  with  other  coim tries  are  leather,  soap,  sail-cloth,  cordage, 
and  tar.     For  all  of  these  she  has  the  raw  material  within  herself. 

6.  Fopnlation,  etc.  —  The  Eussians  belong  to  the  Slavic  race,  one 
of  the  main  branches  of  the  Caucasian  stock.  The  government  is 
an  absolute  monarchy,  under  an  emperor  called  the  Czar  (a  cor- 
ruption of  the  word  Caesar),  who  is  head  both  of  church  and  state. 
The  established  religion  is  that  of  the  Greek  Church. 

CSvUizatioBL  —  Russia,  during  the  present  century,  has  had  a  number  of  very 
able  Czars  ;  and  as  the  Czar  is  all-powerful,  these  rulers  have  been  able  to  advance 
the  country  very  much.  At  the  present  time  numerous  railroads  are  in  process  of 
building,  education  and  Uterature  are  taking  root,  and  there  is  a  stir  of  real  life  and 
progress  in  Russia. 

6.  Cities.  —  St.  Petebsburg  (900,000),  the  capital,  situated  on  a 
number  of  small  islands  in  the  Neva,  is  the  metropolis  and  chief 
commercial  city  of  the  Empire.     The  other  leading  cities  are :  — 


Namei. 

PopoUtion. 

Chaiacteiistics. 

Koicow. 
Warsaw. 

OdMM. 

Kiehiser'. 
Bigra. 

SaratoT. 

WUna. 

Kasan'. 

Kiev. 

Cronstadt. 

611,000 

837,000 

184,000 

103,000 
103,000 

05,000 
80,000 
85,000 
130,000 
47,000 

Is  one  of  the  oldest  cities  of  Rossis,  and  formerly  the  capital ;  a 

great  manufacturing  and  trading  center. 
Was  the  capital  of  Poland  when  that  kingdom  existed ;  is  now  the 

metropolis  of  Polish  Russia. 
Is  the  southern  emporium  of  Russian  commerce,  and  chief  seaport 

on  the  Black  Sea. 
Is  an  important  entrepflt  for  the  Black  Sea  trade. 
Has  a  fine  harbor,  and  exports  great  quantities  of  grain,  hemp,  flax, 

and  lumber. 
Is  the  principal  point  of  transit  trade  for  the  Caspian  Basin. 
Is  inliabited  mainly  by  Jews,  and  is  the  scene  of  a  great  annual  fair. 
Is  an  important  entrepot  for  transit  trade  with  Asia. 
Is  the  scene  of  one  of  the  great  commercial  fairs. 
Is  the  seaport  of  St.  Petersburg,  and  the  great  naval  station  of  Russia. 

SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY. 

L  Sitnation.  —  Sweden  and  Norway,  which  are  distinct  though 
adjoining  countries,  form  a  single  government,  —  the  Kingdom  of 
Sweden  and  Norway.  Sweden  occupies  the  eastern  and  Norway 
the  western  part  of  the  large  peninsula  called  Scandinavia. 

2.  Physical  Features.  —  This  peninsula  is  intersected  throughout 
its  whole  length  by  the  Scandinavian  Mountains,  which  separate 
Norway  and  Sweden.  The  Atlantic  coast  is  indented  by  innumer- 
able inlets  called  fiords.  The  winters  are  very  cold,  and  the  ground 
is  covered  with  snow  for  about  six  months  in  the  year ;  the  sum- 
mers are  short  and  hot 

3.  Besonroes.  —  The  most  valuable  among  the  natural  produc- 
tions of  Scandinavia  are  found  in  its  mines,  its  forests,  and  its 
fisheries. 

4.  Mimng.  —  Iron  and  copper  are  abundant  in  both  countries, 
and  raining  is  a  leading  industry. 


NORTH  CAPE, 1He  MOST  NORTHERN  CAPE  IN  EUROPE. 


5.  Lumbering.  —  The  extensive  forests  of  pine  and  fir  furnish  an 
inexhaustible  supply  of  timber,  which  is  largely  exported. 

6.  The  Fisheries.  —  The  seas,  rivei-s,  and  lakes  swarm  with  fish, 
and  the  fisheries  of  the  Lofo'den  Islands  supply  a  laige  part  of  the 
food  of  the  peasantry,  besides  great  quantities  of  fish  that  are  salted 
and  dried  for  export  to  Southern  Europe. 

7.  Agriculture.  —  Only  a  small  part  of  the  soil  either  in  Sweden 
or  Norway  is  under  cultivation ;  still,  in  Sweden  a  surplus  of  grain 
is  raised.     Norway  does  not  produce  grain  enough  for  her  own  use. 

8.  Cities.  —  Stockholm  (175,000),  the  largest  city  in  Sweden,  is 
the  capital  of  the  united  kingdoms.  Goteburg  is  an  important 
manufacturing  and  commercial  point.  Christiania,  on  the  Skager- 
rack, is  the  capital  of  Norway. 


Lapps  and  Finns.  —  The  Laplanders  and  Finns,  who  belong  to 
the  Mongol  race,  dwell  in  the  extreme  northern  part  of  the  Scan- 
dinavian peninsula.  Their  chief  wealth  is  the  reindeer,  which 
supplies  them  with  food,  clothing,  and  many  useful  articles. 


DENMARK 


L  Description.  —  Denmark  consists  of  the  peninsula  of  Jutland 
and  of  the  adjacent  islands  at  the  entrance  of  the  Baltic,  the 
laigest  being  Zealand  and  Fiinen. 

2.  Industries,  —  Denmark  is  mainly  an  agricultural  and  grazing 
country,  but  many  Danes  are  engaged  in  the  fisheries  or  in  a  sea- 
faring life. 

3.  Population,  etc.  —  The  people  of  Denmark  are  of  Teutonic 
origin,  consisting  of  Danes,  Germans,  and  Angles.  The  government 
is  a  limited  monarchy,  and  the  established  religion  is  Lutheran. 

4.  Cities.  —  Copenhagen  (235,000),  on  the  island  of  Zealand, 
is  the  capital  and  chief  commercial  city.  It  is  also  noted  for  its 
great  university  and  fine  museum.  CyDENSE,  on  the  island  of 
Fiinen,  ranks  second  in  importance. 


UAP    STTTDIBS. 

Sweden  and  Norway. —  (Central  Europe, page  100.)  1.  Bound  the  Scandi- 
navian peninsula.  2.  Between  what  parallels  is  it  included  f  3.  What  is  the  most 
northern  cape  of  Norway  ?  4.  Where  is  the  body  of  water  called  the  Skager-rack  ? 
—  Cattegat  ?  5.  What  mountains  between  Norway  and  .Sweden  ?  6.  Which  is  the 
larger  country,  —  Norway  or  Sweden  ?  7.  The  drainage  of  Sweden  is  mainly  into 
what  bmlies  of  water  ?  8.  Why  has  Norway  no  large  rivers  ?  9.  Name  the  capi- 
tals.    10.  Where  are  the  Ixifoden  Islands  ? 

Denmark.—  (Map  of  Europe,  page  9S.)  1.  Of  what  natural  division  does  most 
of  Denmark  consist  ?  2.  What  bodies  of  water  nearly  surround  it  ?  3.  What  coun- 
tries south  ?  4.  Name  the  three  principal  islands.  5.  What  is  the  character  of  the 
surface,  —  mountainous  or  level  ?  6.  On  which  island  is  the  capital  ?  7.  Where 
is  Odense! 


104 


EUROPE. 


SCENE    IN    HOLLAND. 


NETHERLANDS, 

1.  Description.  —  The  Kingdom  of  the  Netherlands,  formerly 
called    Holland,   occupies  a   region   of   low    country   along   the 

shore  of  the 
North  Sea. 
Much  of  the 
land  which 
was  for- 
merly over- 
flowed by 
the  ocean 
at  high  tide 
has  been  re- 
claimed by  building  great  embankments 
called  dikes. 

The  whole  country  is  intersected  by 
natural  water-channels,  and  the  land- 
scape presents  a  succession   of  green 
meadows,  separated  by  water  and  dotted  with  windmills. 

2.  Industries.  —  Farming  and  dairying,  the  fisheries,  manufac- 
turing and  commerce,  are  the  leading  occupations  of  the  thrifty 
Hollanders. 

Dairying.  —  Owing  to  the  moistness  of  the  climate,  which  keeps  the  gra.S8 
fresh  and  sweet  for  grazing,  the  making  of  dairy  products  is  a  leading  pur- 
suit, and  great  quantities  of  butter  and  cheese  are  exported. 

The  fiaheiiea  are  still  largely  carried  on,  though  this  industry  is  less 
important  than  formerly. 

Manufactures.  —  The  principal  manufactures  are  linen,  wooien  goods, 
leather,  gin,  and  cheese. 

Commerce.  —  Holland  has  fine  commercial  facilities,  arising  from  its  posi- 
tion at  the  mouth  of  the  Rhine  and  its  harbors  on  the  North  Sea.  The 
internal  trade  is  carried  on  mainly  by  means  of  canals,  which  run  through  the 
principal  streets  of  the  cities  and  extend  in  a  network  over  the  whole  country. 
The  foreign  commerce  is  very  large. 

3.  Population,  etc. — The  people  of  Holland  belong  to  the  Teutonic 
race,  and  the  word  Dutch,  the  name  by  which  they  are  known,  sig- 
nifies Teutonic.  The  government  is  a  limited  monarchy,  and  the 
religion  Protestant.     Education  is  universal. 

4.  Cities.  —  Amsterdam  (325,000)  is  the  chief  commercial  city 
of  Holland.  Eotterdam  is  the  second  city  in  population  and 
trade.     The  Hague  [haig]  is  the  seat  of  government. 

Foreign  Possessions.  —  The  principal  foreign  possessions  are :  In  the  East 
Indies,  Java  and  most  of  the  Moluc'cas,  with  parts  of  Suma'tra,  Borneo,  and  Cel'ebes  ; 
in  the  West  Indies,  Cura^oa  [eiire-ah-so'ah']  and  St.  Eustatius ;  in  South  America, 
Dutch  Guiana.  These  possessions,  especially  those  in  the  East  IndieS,  have  greatly 
promoted  the  commerce  of  Holland,  which  has  a  carrying  trade  inferior  only  to  that 
of  Great  Britain. 


MAP    STTJCIES. 

Holland.  —  {Central  Europe,  page  100.)  1.  Bound  Holland.  2.  What  is  the  nature 
of  the  surface  ?  3.  What  inbreaking  of  the  sea  in  the  northern  part  ?  4.  What 
great  German  river  flows  through  Holland  to  the  sea  ?  5.  What  names  does  the 
Rhine  here  take  ?  6.  What  name  does  the  Meuse  heie  take  ?  7.  Locate  Amsterdam, 
—  Rotterdam,  — The  Hague. 

Belgium.  —  {Central  Europe,  page  100.)  1.  Bound  Belgium.  2.  Where  is  its 
water-front  ?  3.  What  two  rivers  traverse  it  ?  4.  In  which  part  of  the  kingdom  is 
Brussels  ?    5.  Name  a  seaport.     6.  On  what  river  is  Liege  ? 

Switzerland. — (Map  ofCerUral  Europe,  page  100.)  1.  Bound  Switzerland.  2.  Has 
it  any  sea-coast  ?  3.  Is  there  any  other  nation  in  Europe  that  has  no  sea-coast  ? 
4.  What  is  the  character  of  the  surface  ?  5.  What  mountains  occupy  most  of  it  ? 
6.  What  range  on  the  west  ?  7.  Name  the  two  principal  lakes.  8.  What  two 
great  rivers  have  their  source  in  Switzerland  ?    9.  Locate  Geneva,  —  Berne,  —  Basle. 


BELGIUM. 

L  Physical  Features.  —  The  western  part  of  Belgium,  watered  by 
the  Scheldt  \skelt\  and  its  tributaries,  is  a  continuation  of  the  flats 
of  Holland ;  the  inland  half  drained  by  the  Meuse  is  hilly  and 
well  wooded. 

2.  Industries.  — -  Belgium  has  rich  mines  of  coal  and  iron,  which 
are  extensively  worked ;  hence  it  is  naturally  a  manufacturing 
country.  The  leading  articles  of  manufacture  are  iron  machinery, 
glass-ware,  woolens,  linens,  laces,  and  carpets.  Agriculture  is  in  a 
high  state  of  perfection :  the  chief  staples  are  grain,  flax,  hops,  and 
root-crops. 

3.  Population,  etc.  —  The  Belgians  are  in  race,  language,  and 

character,  as  well  as  in  position,  intermediate  between  the  Dutch 

and  the  French  :  they  are  of  mixed  Teutonic  and  Celtic  blood. 

Note.  —  The  French  language  is  spoken  by  the  higher  classes  ;  Flemish,  resem- 
bling Dutch,  and  the  Walloon,  a  corrupt  French,  are  the  dialects  of  the  common 
people.     The  government  is  a  limited  monarchy,  and  the  religion  Roman  Catholic. 

4  Cities.  —  The  chief  cities  are  Brussels  (400,000),  the  capital, 
noted  for  its  manufacture  of  laces,  carpets,  etc. ;  Antwerp,  the  com- 
mercial metropolis;  Ghent,  a  manufacturing  city;  Liege  \leej'], 
which  has  extensive  coal-mines  and  iron-works;  and  Bru'ges, 
an  important  manufacturing  and  commercial  point. 


SWITZERLAND, 


PASS  OF  THE  GREAT  ST,  BERNARD. 


L  Surface.  —  The  surface  of  Switzerland  is  more  varied  than 
that  of  any  other  country  of  Europe.  The  southern  part  is  occu- 
pied by  various  ridges  of  the  Alps,  while  on  the  western  side  are 
the  Jura  Moimtains,  separated  from  the  Alps  by  an  elevated  plain. 
Between  the  mountain-ranges  are  numerous  deep  and  narrow 
valleys. 

2.  Scenery.  —  Switzerland  is  a  country  of  majestic,  snow-capped 
mountains,  beautiful  waterfalls,  wonderful  glaciers,  and  picturesque 


SPAIN  AND   PORTUGAL. 


105 


landscapes  and  lakes,  —  forming  altogether  the  subliniest  scenery 
in  Europe. 

Peaks  and  Passes.  —  The  most  famous  peaks  of  the  Alps  ore  Mount  St  Gothard, 
the  Simploti,  Moiit  Cerriu  (or  the  Matterhom),  Mont  Cenis,  the  Finster-Aarhorn,  and 
the  Jungfrau  ;  each  is  above  two  miles  high.  Mont  Blanc,  the  monarch  of  the  Alps 
(15,780  feet  high),  is  not  in  Switzerland,  but  in  Savoy,  which  belongs  to  France. 

The  passes  over  the  mountains  lie  in  many  cases  at  a  great  elevation.  The  most 
celebrated  are  the  pass  of  the  Great  St  Bernard,  on  the  crest  of  which  is  a  famous 
convent,  or  hospice  ;  the  Simplon  ;  and  the  paa.<i  of  Mont  Cenis.  Through  the  last- 
named,  08  also  through  Mt  St  Gothard,  railroad  tunnels  have  been  cut. 

3.  Industries, —  This  mountainous  country  does  not  produce  food 
enough  for  home  consumption.  Grain  and  the  vine  are  cultivated 
in  the  lower  valleys,  but  stock-raising  and  dairying  give  employ- 
ment to  the  majority  of  the  inhabitants. 

The  numerous  rapid  mountain-streams  afford  cheap  and  abun- 
dant water-power.  The  chief  manufactures  are  cottons,  woolens, 
linens,  silks,  watches,  jewelry,  and  wood-carvings. 

4.  Population,  etc.  —  The  Swiss  belong  mainly  to  the  Germanic 
race,  and  speak  the  German  language.  There  is,  however,  a  large 
Celtic  and  Latin  population,  speaking  French  or  Italian.  The  gov- 
ernment is  a  federal  republic,  comprising  22  small  cantons.  More 
than  half  the  people  are  Protestants ;  the  rest  Eoman  Catholics. 

5.  Cities,  —  The  principal  cities  are  Geneva  (70,000),  Zurich, 
and  Basle  [bahl],  which  are  manufacturing  and  commercial  points. 
Bebne  is  the  capital  of  the  Confederation. 


SPAIN. 


L  Spain,  together 
with  Portugal,  oc- 
cupies the  western 
peninsula  of  South- 
em  Europe.  It  is 
cut  off  from  the  rest 
of  Europe  by  the  mountain-wall  of  the  Pyrenees. 

2.  Physical  Features.  —  The  physical  features  of  Spain  are  a 
great  central  plateau,  crossed  and  divided  by  numerous  mountain- 
chains,  or  Sierras,  and  a  narrow  belt  of  lowland  along  the  coasts 


VIKW  IN  SPAIN. 


MAP   STUDIBS. 

Spain.  —  (Hap  of  Europe,  page  9£.)  1.  Bound  Spain.  2.  Where  is  Cape  Orte- 
gal,  —  Cape  Finisterre,  —  St.  Vincent  t  3.  What  is  the  general  character  of  the 
surface  ?  4.  Name  some  of  the  mountain-ranges  (Sierras).  5.  What  three  rivers  of 
Spain  flow  into  the  Atlantic  ?  6.  Describe  the  course  of  the  Ebro.  7-  In  which 
part  is  Madrid  ?    8.  Locate  Barcelo'na,  —  Seville,  —  Cadiz,  —  Gibraltar. 

FortngaL  —  {Afap  of  Europe,  page  9H.)  1.  Boimd  Portugal.  2.  What  is  the 
general  character  of  the  surface  ?  3.  What  three  rivers  flowing  from  Spain  traverse 
Portugal  ?    4.  Where  is  Lisbon  ?    5.  What  seaport  at  the  mouth  of  the  Dooro  ? 


of  the  Atlantic  and  the  Mediterraneaa  The  climate,  except  on  the 
seaboard,  is  dry ;  the  central  table-land  is  subject  to  great  extremes 
of  temperature. 

3.  Besources.  —  Spain  is  rich  in  metals,  particularly  in  iron,  lead, 
and  quicksilver,  of  which  latter  it  contains  one  of  the  richest 
mines  in  the  world.  It  has  a  fertile  soil,  and  its  southern  climate 
adapts  it  to  the  growth  of  the  vine,  olive,  orange,  and  fig. 

4.  Industries,  —  On  the  table-lands  are  pastured  great  herds  of 
sheep,  which  produce  large  quantities  of  fine  merino  wool.  The 
mulberry  is  extensively  cultivated,  and  more  silk  is  produced  than 
in  auy  other  country  of  Europe,  except  Italy.  The  vine  is  largely 
cultivated  for  making  raisins  and  wine  (sherry).  The  valleys  and 
the  coast-belt  have  a  sub-tropical  climate,  and  produce  the  orange, 
lemon,  fig,  and  oliv& 

5.  The  chief  exports  are  sherry  wine,  wool,  metals,  fruits  and 
dried  fruits,  silk,  leather,  and  cork. 

6.  Civilization.  —  In  the  sixteenth  century  Spain  was  the  greatest 
nation  in  Europe ;  but  owing  to  the  effect  of  a  long  period  of  bad 
government  it  has  sunk  to  the  position  of  a  second-rate  power,  and 
is  neither  progressive  nor  highly  civilized. 

7.  Cities,  —  Madrid  (398,000)  is  the  capital.  The  other  most 
important  cities  are  given  in  the  following  table  :  — 


Names. 

Popolation. 

Barcelona. 

260,000 

Cor'dova. 

160,000 

SeviUe'. 

134,000 

Valencia. 

143,000 

Hal'aga. 

118,000 

Marcia. 

118,000 

Qrana'da. 

70,000 

Saragossa. 

86,000 

Cadiz. 

65,000 

Valladolid'. 

65,000 

CliaracteTigtica. 


Is  the  chief  seat' of  manufactures  and  commerce. 

Manufactures  goat-skin  leather. 

Has  extensive  manufactures  of  tobacco ;  noted  for  Sue  oranges. 

Has  extensive  manufactories  of  silk  and  linen. 

Is  noted  for  its  dried  friiita,  sweet  wines,  and  iron  mannfactorea. 

Is  an  important  interior  center  of  commerce. 

An  ancient  Moorish  city,  containing  the  Alhambra. 

Is  the  capita]  of  the  province  of  Aragon. 

Is  an  important  seaport  on  the  Athmtio. 

Has  large  trade. 


The  foreign  poasessions  of  Spain  are  :  the  Balearic  Isles,  in  the  Mediterra- 
nean ;  Ceuta,  in  Africa,  opposite  Gibraltar  ;  Fernando  Po  and  Annabon,  off  the  coast 
of  Guinea  ;  the  Canary  Isles,  in  the  Atlantic  ;  Cuba,  Porto  Rico,  and  Pinos,  which 
are  West  India  Islands  ;  and  the  Philippines,  Ladrones,  and  Carolinas,  in  the  Pacific 

Gibraltar,  on  a  rock  of  the  same  name,  belongs  to  the  English,  who  have  held  it 
since  1704.     This  rocky  fortress  commands  the  entrance  to  the  Mediterranean. 


PORTUGAL 


1.  Physical  Features.  —  Portugal,  occupying  the  western  part  of 
the  Iberian  peninsula,  is  a  mountainous  country,  sloping  toward 
the  Atlantic.  Its  valleys  contain  the  lower  courses  of  several 
rivers  which  rise  in  Spain.  The  climate  is  warm,  and  not  sub- 
ject to  extremes. 

2.  Industries,  —  The  leading  pursuit  is  the  culture  of  the  vine, 
from  which  port- wine  is  produced,  and  of  the  olive  and  semi-tropi- 
cal fruits,  such  as  oranges,  lemons,  and  figs. 

3.  Population,  etc.  —  The  Portuguese  belong  to  the  same  race  as 
the  Spanish,  to  whom  they  are  closely  allied  in  language,  character, 
and  religion.     The  government  is  a  monarchy. 

4  Cities.  —  Lisbon  (233,000)  is  the  capital.   Opor'to  is  the  chief 

seat  of  the  trade  in  port-wine,  to  which  it  gives  its  name. 

Islands.  —  The  island  possessions  of  Portugal  include  the  Madeira  Isles  (capital, 
Funchal),  which  yield  superior  wine  ;  the  Azores,  which  produce  fine  oranges ;  and  the 
Cape  Verde  Islands. 


106 


EUROPK 


ITALY. 

L  Situation  and  Extent  —  Italy  occupies  the  central  of  the 
three  peninsulas  of  Southern  Europe,  together  with  a  continental 
part  extending  as  far  north  as  the  Alps,  and  several  islands  in  the 
Mediterranean  Sea.     It  is  about  double  the  size  of  New  England. 

Akea,  114,400  square  miles.     Population,  28,500,000. 

2.  Physical  Features.  —  The  surface  features  of  Italy  are, — 
the  Continental  Plain  in  the  north,  drained  by  the  river  Po ;  the 
long  narrow  peninsula,  of  which  the  Apennines  form  the  backbone ; 
Insular  Italy,  comprising  Sicily,  Sardinia,  and  the  adjacent  islets. 

3.  Islands.  —  Sicily  is  noted  for  its  fertility  and  for  the  volcano 
of  Etna.  Sardinia  forms  part  of  the  state  of  Sardinia.  Elba  was 
the  scene  of  Napoleon's  first  banishment.  The  Lipari  Isles  con- 
tain the  volcano  of  Stromboli. 

4.  Advantages.  —  The  natural  advantages  possessed  by  Italy  are 
a  fertile  soil  finely  adapted  to  the  growth  of  semi-tropical  produc- 
tions, its  extensive  fisheries,  valuable  minerals,  and  admirable 
situation  for  commerce. 

5.  The  leading  industries  are  agriculture,  manufacturing,  and  the 
fisheries. 

6.  Agriculture.  —  Wheat  and  the  vine,  olive,  and  mulberry  are 

extensively  cultivated  throughout  Italy.      Oranges,  lemons,  figs, 

and  other  semi-tropical  fruits  flourish  in  the  southern  part. 

Note.  —  The  chestnut-tree  abounds  in  the  forests  of  tlie  Apennines,  and  the  sweet 
nut  forms  an  impoi'tant  article  of  food.  Macaroni,  made  from  wheat  flour,  is  a 
national  dish. 


Map  Study.  —  {Map  of  Europe,  page  92.)  1.  Of  what  natural  division  does  the 
greater  part  of  Italy  consist  ?  2.  "What  is  the  shape  of  the  peninsula  ?  3.  What 
natural  boundary  to  the  north  ?  4.  What  sea  to  the  east?  —  to  the  west  ?  5.  What 
is  the  latitude  of  the  city  of  Rome  ?  Is  this  farther  north  or  farther  south  than  New 
York  City  ?  6.  What  large  gulf  in  the  northeastern  part  ?  7.  What  large  gulf 
in  the  southeastern  part?  8.  What  waters  are  joined  by  the  Strait  of  Otranto? 
9.  What  mountain-chain  traverses  the  peninsula  ?  10.  Where  is  Mount  Vesuvius  ? 
11.  What  is  the  longest  river,  and  into  what  does  it  flow  ?  12.  Describe  the 
course  of  the  Amo,  —  of  the  Tiber.  13.  What  two  large  islands  belong  to  Italy  ? 
14.  What  large  island  belongs  to  France  ?  15.  Locate  Rome,  —  Naples,  —  Turin, 
—  Florence,  — Venice,  —  Genoa. 


7.  Manufactures.  —  Tlie  silk  manufactures  of  Italy  are  the  most 
important  in  Europe,  and  are  one  of  tlie  great  sources  of  national 
wealth.  Of  the  other  manufactures,  those  of  earthenware,  straw 
goods,  artificial  flowers,  and  macaroni  are  of  special  importance. 

8.  The  coast  fishery  employs  large  numbers  of  Italians.  Tunny 
and  anchovies  are  caught  in  immense  quantities,  and  the  latter  are 
exported  to  all  parts  of  the  world. 

9.  Eome  (300,000),  the  capital  of  Italy,  is  often  called  the 
"  Eternal  City."  It  was  founded  over  twenty-five  hundred  years 
ago,  and  was  for  a  thousand  years  the  capital  of  the  Eoman 
Power.  Every  part  of  Eome  contains  remains  of  temples,  baths, 
tombs,  arches,  and  columns  that  excite  admiration  no  less  by  their 
massiveness  than  by  the  beauty  of  their  design.  Art-students 
from  all  parts  of  the  world  visit  it. 

St.  Peter's.  —  The  church  of  St.  Peter's  is  the  most  beautiful  building  in  the 
world.  The  greatest  part  of  it  was  designed  by  the  famous  sculptor  Michael  Angelo, 
who  erected  its  immense  dome  (450  feet  high  to  the  top  of  the  cross). 

National  Characteristics.  —  The  Italians  are  the  purest  representatives 
of  the  Latin  race,  and  their  language  comes  directly  from  the  Latin.  They 
cannot  be  ranked  as  a  very  progressive  people  ;  but  since  they  obtained  their 
national  liberty  and  unity  important  changes  have  been  taking  place,  and 
they  now  have  free  schools  and  a  free  press.  The  people  are  generally  indus- 
trious, frugal,  and  temperate,  but  excitable  and  passionate.  They  excel  in  the 
fine  arts,  —  music,  painting,  and  sculpture.  Their  religion  is  Roman  Catholic, 
and  Rome  is  the  world's  center  of  the  Catholic  Church. 

10.  Cities.  —  In  addition  to  Eome  the  largest  cities  are :  — 


Names. 

Population. 

Naples. 

493,000 

Milan. 

821,000 

Turin. 

253,000 

Palermo. 

245,000 

Genoa. 

180,000 

Venice. 

135,000 

Florence. 

170,000 

Bologna. 

125,000 

Characteriatica. 


Is  the  largest  city,  and  is  situated  on  the  beautiful  Bay  of  Naples ; 

noted  for  the  manufacture  of  macaroni  and  vermicelli ;  near  by 

is  the  volcano  of  Vesuvius. 
Is  the  chief  city  of  Lombardy,  and  is  noted  for  its  silk  manufactures. 
Is  famous  for  its  museums  and  works  of  art. 
Is  the  largest  city  in  Sicily. 
Is  an  important  commercial  city. 

Is  built  on  a  hundred  small  islands,  and  is  intersected  by  canals. 
A  brilliant  city,  and  a  center  of  literature  and  art. 
Has  art-galleries  and  some  manufactures. 


San  Marino. —  San  Marino,  a  petty  mountain  republic,  containing  about  10,000 
inhabitants,  is  an  independent  state. 


GliEECE  AND  TURKEY  IN  EUKOPK 


107 


OBEECE. 

1  Fhyrical  Features  —  Greece  occupies  the  most  eastern  of  the 
three  Mediterranean  peninsulas,  and  presents  three  physical  di- 
visions :  1.  Continental  Greece.  2.  The  Morea,  or  Peninsular 
Greece.  3.  Insular  Greece,  or  the  islands  and  groups  of  islands 
belonging  to  this  kingdom.  The  surface  is  generally  mountainous, 
and  the  country  has  no  navigable  rivers.  The  climate  is  mild 
and  sunny,  like  that  of  Italy. 

2.  Past  and  Present  —  Five  hundred  years  before  the  birth  of 
Christ  Greece  was  the  most  civilized  of  nations.  Its  republics 
were  famous  for  their  illustrious  soldiers,  artists,  philosophers, 
poets,  and  historiana  But  now  Greece  is  a  smaU  and  weak 
kingdom,  infested  by  bandits,  and  its  people  generally  are  nei- 
ther educated  nor  industrious. 

3.  Industries.  —  A  large  part  of  the  population  are  engaged  in 
raising  sheep  and  goats  in  the  mountain  districts ;  but  agriculture 
is  carried  on  in  the  rudest  maimer.  In  the  "  Isles  of  Greece " 
multitudes  of  sailors  are  trained. 

The  leading  exports  are  olive-oil,  silk,  honey,  tobacco,  currants, 
and  other  fruits. 

4.  Government,  etc.  —  For  several  centuries  previous  to  1821 
Greece  was  a  part  of  the  Turkish  Empire;  the  Greeks  then 
revolted,  and  after  a  long  struggle  succeeded,  with  the  assistance 
of  the  European  powers,  in  establishing  their  independence. 
Greece  is  now  a  monarchy. 

6.  Cities.  —  Athens  (63,000)  is  the  capital  and  chief  city.  It 
is  the  residence  of  the  king  and  court,  has  important  educational 
institutions,  and  is  a  place  of  active  local  trade.  Its  seaport  is 
the  Piraeus. 


TURKEY    IN    EUROPE. 


Names. 

Popnlation. 

Characteristics. 

Syra. 

Patraa-. 

Zan'te. 

Corfu. 

21,000 
26,000 
16,000 

17,000 

la  the  chief  commercial  depot  in  the  island  of  Syra. 

b  noted  for  its  extensive  currant  trade. 

la  the  chief  city  of  the  island  of  Zante,  tlie  nHwt  important  of  the 

Ionian  Isles. 
Li  the  capital  of  the  Ionian  lalea 

THI   PARTHINON  SUTOKD. 


Note.  —  In  the  time  of  the  glory  of  Greece  Athens  was  the  center  of  art  and 
learning.  It  contained  magnificent  works  of  architecture,  the  ruins  of  which  still 
exist.  The  most  beautiful  building  was  the  Parthenon,  which  stood  on  the  Acropolis, 
a  considerable  elevation  in  the  city. 


Map  Study.  —  (Map  of  Europe,  page  9S.)  1.  What  country  north  of  Greece? 
2.  Which  part  is  a  peninsula?  3.  What  is  the  most  southern  cape  of  Greece? 
4.  What  is  the  name  of  the  island-studded  sea  to  the  east  ?  6.  Nauic  the  largest 
island.  6.  What  group  weit  T  7.  What  large  island  south  of  Oreisce?  8.  What 
and  where  is  the  capital  T  9.  Where  was  ancient  Sparta  t  —  CJorinth  t  10.  Locate 
Patras,  —  Corfu,  —  Zan'te. 


STRreT    SCCNE    IN    CONSTANTINOPLE. 


L  Situation. — The  Turk- 
ish Empire  comprises  a 
number  of  countries  at  the 
meeting-point  of  Europe, 
Asia,  and  Africa.  Within 
its  limits  are  included  some 
of  the  most  celebrated  re- 
gions of  the  Old  World. 

Note.  —  The  Empire  of  the  Turks  is  properly  an  Asiatic  power,  with  a  little  ter- 
ritory in  Europe  and  in  Africa,  and  its  capital  at  Constantinople. 

2.  Physical  Features.  —  European  Turkey  comprises  the  region 
from  the  Danubian  Principalities  southward  to  Greece. 

3.  Industries. — Valuable  crops  of  maize,  millet,  and  tobacco  are 
raised;  and  tlie  cotton-plant  and  olive-tree  flourish.  The  raising 
of  cattle  and  sheep  is,  however,  a  more  general  industry. 

The  Turks  are  not  a  manufacturing  people,  though  they  pro- 
duce fine  cotton  and  silk  goods,  and  leather  of  a  superior  qual- 
ity.' The  commerce  is  considerable,  but  is  mostly  in  the  hands 
of  foreigners.  The  chief  exports  are  wool,  tobacco,  cotton,  dried 
fruits,  carpets,  leather,  horses,  cattle,  and  hides. 

4.  Race,  etc. — ^Tlie  Turks  belong  to  the  Mongolian  type,  and 
came  from  Asia  in  the  fifteenth  century ;  they  are  the  ruliug  race, 
though  they  constitute  but  a  small  part  of  the  population, — the 
majority  of  the  people  being  Slavonians,  Greeks,  etc.  The  govern- 
ment is  an  absolute  monarchy,  and  the  emperor  is  styled  the 
Sultan.    The  religion  of  the  Turks  is  the  Mohammedan. 

Note.  — The  Asiatic  element  appears  markedly  in  the  domestic  arrangements  ol 
the  wealthier  Turks.  They  appropriate  to  their  women  certain  apartments,  which 
no  stranger  may  enter.  Turkey  is  the  only  part  of  Europe  where  the  women,  on 
going  out,  muffle  up  their  faces  so  as  to  conceal  all  but  their  eyes,  and  where  men 
walk  about  in  loose,  flowing  robes  and  sit  cross-legged. 

6.  Cities.  —  Constantinople  (600,000),  the  capital,  on  the  Bos- 
phorus,  is  one  of  the  most  finely  situated  of  cities.  Adriano'plf. 
is  the  center  of  the  silk,  cotton,  and  wool  manufactures.  Salo- 
ni'ka  is  the  second  seaport  in  importance,  and  the  center  of  the 
cotton  and  leather  manufactures. 

Bulgaria  and  Bast  Roumelia,  till  the  Berlin  treaty  (1878),  formed  part« 
of  the  Turkish  Empire,  but  are  now  independent  in  internal  organization, 
though  they  must  pay  tribute  to  the  Sultan  of  Turkey. 

ROUMANIA,    SERVIA,    AND    MONTENEG-RO. 
Eoumania,  Servia,  and  Montenegro  were,  till  1878,  parts  of  the 
Turkish  Empire,  but  are  now  independent  sovereignties. 


Map  Study.  —  {Map  of  Europe,  page  OS.)  1.  Round  Turkey.  2.  On  what  sea 
has  it  a  water-front  ?  3.  Wliat  connects  the  Sea  of  Marmora  with  the  i£gcan  Sea  f — 
with  tlio  Hlack  Sea  ?  4.  What  are  the  principal  mountain-chains  ?  6.  Which  is  the 
greatest  river  of  Turkey  f  6.  Describe  its  course.  7.  What  are  the  two  largest 
streams  entering  the  Archipelago  ?  8.  Where  is  Constantinople  ?  9.  What  seaport 
on  the  Gulf  of  Salonica  ?    10.  liocate  Adrianople,  —  Bukharcst',  —  Belgrade'. 


108 


TOPICAL  KEVIEW   OF  EUROPE. 


TOPICAL    REVIEW    OF    EUROPE. 


Iron 

Coal 

Forests 

Fisheries... 

Farm  Soil. 
Seaports. . . 


Grain  and 
Grazing 
Countries. 


I.  RESOURCES. 

The  following  table  presents  an  arrangement  of  the  leading  European 
countries  with  reference  to  the  main  elements  of  natural  wealth  and  ad- 
vantages for  civilization  :  — 

England,  Russia,  France,  Sweden,  and  Belgium. 

England,  Belgium,  and  France. 

Russia,  Sweden  and  Norway,  Germany,  and  Austria. 

Great  Britain,  Sweden  and  Norway,  Denmark,  Holland, 

France,  and  Italy. 

Russia,  Germany,  France,  Italy,  Belgium,  and  Holland. 

Great  Britain,  France,  Holland,  Denmark,  and  Italy. 

Climate  (semi-tropical).. Spain  and  Portugal,  France  (south),  lta,ly,\wine  avA  on 
Greece,  and  Turkey  (south).  /    Countries. 

Climate  (temperate) France  (north).    Great   Britain,   Holland,' 

Belgium,  Denmark,  Switzerland,  Ger- 
many, Austria,  Russia  (south),  and  Tur- 
key (north). 

II.  PURSUITS. 

The  following  table  presents  an  arrangement  of  the  chief  European 
nations  according  to  their  leading  industries,  agricultural,  manufacturing, 
and  commercial :  — 

Agricultural  Countries Russia,   Germany,  Austria,   Italy,  Spain,   Holland, 

and  Belgium. 
Manufacturing  Countries... Great  Britain,  France,  Belgium,  and  Switzerland. 
Commercial  Countries Great  Britain,  France,  Russia,  Holland,  and  Germany. 

III.  OUR   COMMERCIAL    RELATIONS. 

To  Europe  the  United  States  sends  mainly  the  great  staples,  cotton, 
wheat,  corn,  and  tobacco ;  together  with  pork  and  bacon,  gold  and  silver. 
From  the  various  European  countries  we  receive  a  great  variety  of  natu- 
ral products  and  manufactured  articles.  The  following  table  shows  our 
leading  European  imports  :  — 

England Cotton  and  woolen  goods,  hardware,  and  various  articles  of  use. 

France Silks,  broadcloth,  laces,  ribbons,  wines  and  brandies,  and  various 

articles  of  luxury. 


Germany Musical  instruments,  linen.s,  woolen  goods,  wine  and  beer. 

Austria Fine  glassware,  leather  goods,  fruits,  and  wine. 

Rtissia Flax,  hemp,  leather,  cordage,  and  iron. 

Sweden Iron.  ' 

Holland Linen,  cheese,  gin,  and  herrings. 

Belgium Lace,  thread,  carpets,  and  glass. 

Switzerland... Watches,  cheese,  and  wood  carvings. 

Spain Olive  oil,  sherry  wine,  oranges,  figs,  raisins,  and  cork. 

Portugal Port  wine,  lemons,  and  cork. 

Italy Olive-oil,  lemons,  marble,  cameos,  rags,  and  coral. 

Greece Currants,  figs,  and  olive-oil. 

Turkey Ojiium,  tobacco,  raisins,  figs,  sponge,  and  carpets. 

IV.  RELIGION. 

The  leading  religions  of  Europe  are  :  Catholicity,  in  its  two  forms,  the 
Latin  or  Eoman  Catholic  Church  and  the  Greek  Catholic  Church ;  and 
Protestantism  in  its  various  forms. 

The  Roman  Catholic  Countries  are  France,  Spain,  Portugal,  Italy,  Austria, 
Belgium,  and  Ireland. 

The  Greek  Catholic  Countries  are  Russia,  Greece,  and  the  Turkish  Provinces. 

The  Protestant  Countries  are  England  and  Scotland,  Germany  (greater  part), 
Holland,  Sweden  and  Norway,  Denmark,  Switzerland  (greater  part). 

V.  POLITICAL  SUMMARY. 

According  to  their  importance  the  nations  of  Europe  may  be  divided 
into  three  classes:  (1)  The  "First-Eate"  Powers j  (2)  the  Second-Eate 
Powers ;  (3)  the  Minor  Powers. 

The  Five  "  First-Rate  "  Powers  are  Great  Britain,  Germany,  France,  Russia, 
and  Austria. 

The  Four  Second-Rate  Powers  are  Italy,  Spain,  Sweden  and  Norway,  and 
Turkey. 

All  the  other  nations  are  classed  poUtically  as  Minor  Powers.  The  petty  repubUcs 
of  Andorra  and  San  Marino  are  of  no  poUtical  importance. 


MameB. 

Area. 

Popnlation. 

Capitals. 

Largest  City  and  Popalation. 

Form  of  Government,  etc. 

Great  Britain  and         ( 
Ireland.                      \ 

sq.  miles. 
121,600 

35,250,000 

London. 

London  (4,765,000).         J 

Constitutional  monarchy  ;  legislature  called  Parliament,  —  House 
of  Lords,  and  House  of  Commons. 

France. 

204,000 

37,500,000 

Paris. 

Paris  (2,225,000). 

Republic,  under  a  president ;  legislature  called  Corps  Legislatif,  — 
a  Senate  and  Chamber  of  Deputies. 

Germany. 

208,000 

45,200,000 

Berlin. 

BerUn  (1,125,000). 

Constitutional  monarchy,  under  an  emperor ;  legislature  called 
the  Reichstag. 

Constitutional  monarchy,  under  an  emjjeror. 

Anstro-Hungary. 

264,000 

39,000,000 

Vienna. 

Vienna  (1,105,000). 

BosBia. 

2,000,000 

75,000,000 

St.  Petersburg. 

St.  Petersburg  (900,000). 

Absolute  monarchy,  under  an  emperor  called  the  Czar. 

Sweden  and                   J 
Norway.                      j 

293,800 

6,500,000 

Stockholm. 

Stockholm  (175,000). 

Constitutional  monarchy  ;  legislature  called  the  Diet ;  in  Norway 
the  Storthing. 

Holland. 

12,  ■'00 

4,000,000 

The  Hague. 

Amsterdam  (325,000). 

Constitutional  monarchy  ;  legislature  called  the  States-General. 

Belgium. 

11,300 

5,350,000 

Bmssels. 

Brussels  (400,000). 

Constitutional  monarchy,  legislature  of  two  Chambers. 

Denmark. 

21,600 

2,000,000 

Copenhagen. 

Copenhagen  (235,000). 

Constitutional  monarchy,  vrith  provincial  legislatures. 

Switzerland, 

16,000 

2,850,000 

Berne. 

Zurich  (76,000). 

Republic,  under  a  president ;  legislature  consisting  of  a  Senate 
and  a  National  Council. 

Spain. 

193,000 

16,250,000 

Madrid. 

Madrid  (398,000). 

Monarchy  ;  legislature  called  the  Cortes. 

Portugal. 

34,500 

4,500,000 

Lisbon. 

Lisbon  (223,000). 

Constitutional  monarchy  ;  legislature  called  the  Cortes. 

Italy. 

114,300 

28,500,000 

Rome. 

Naples  (453,000). 

Constitutional  monarchy  ;  legislature  called  Chamber  of  Deputies. 

Greece. 

25,000 

2,000,000 

Athens. 

Athens  (63,000). 

Constitutional  monarchy ;  legislature  consisting  of  a  Senate  and 
Chamber  of  Deputies. 

Turkey  in  Europe  and  ( 
tributary  States.         j 

94,600 

7,200,000 

Constantinople. 

ConstantuiopleX  600,000). 

Absolute  despotism,  under  an  emperor  called  the  Sultan.     But 

the  tributary  states  are  semi-independent. 

Bonmania. 

48,300 

5,300,000 

Bucharest. 

Bucharest  (178,000). 

Constitutional  monarchy  ;  legislature  of  two  Chambers. 

Servia. 

20,800 

1,700,000 

Belgrade. 

Belgrade  (27,000). 

Constitutional  monarchy  ;  legislature  called  the  Skoupchtina. 

Montenegro. 

3,550 

250,000 

Cettinge. 

Podgorica  (5,000). 

Monarchy,  under  a  prince  called  the  Hospodar. 

PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


109 


ASIA. 


mraOAL  MAP  OF  ASIA. 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

X^  To  draw  the  Hsp  of  Aula,  see  aectlon  on  MBp-DrawinK.  pace  138. 

L   Extent  —  Asia  is  the  larg&st  of  the  grand  divisions,  compris- 
ing one  third  of  the  land  surface  of  the  glolM>. 
a   Sitaatioa  —  It  forms  the  main  continental  ma.ss  of  the  East- 


em  Continent, — Europe  and 
Africa  being  merely  great 
peninsulas. 

3.  Oatline.  —  The  coast  is 
deeply  indented  on  every  side, 
though  not  penetrated  by  seas, 
bays,  and  gulls  to  the  same 
degree  as  Europe. 

4.  Surface.  —  In  Asia  are 
the   loftiest  mountain-chains 

^:JJ^f'^'\  and  the  most  elevated  plateaus 
t''--J^-'^i^f\  on  the  globe.  The  great  mass 
(jf  Central  Asia,  comprising 
four  fifths  of  the  whole,  con- 
sists of  high  plateaus,  inter- 
sected and  bounded  by  moun- 
\  tain-ranges,  some  of  whose 
peaks  rise  to  a  height  of  five 
miles. 

Prom  the  central  plateaus 
the  country  descends  by  a 
series  of  slopes  to  the  vast 
plain  of  Siberia  on  the  north, 
the  plains  of  China  on  the 
^Xb'^  east,  and  to  the  great  penin- 
sulas on  the  south. 

6.  Mountain  Systems.  —  The 
nucleus  of  the  mountain  sys- 
tems is  to  the  west  of  China, 
on  an  elevated  table-land 
called  by  the  Orientals  "  the 
roof  of  the  world."  The  prin- 
cipal mountain-chains  radiat- 
ing from  this  center  are  di- 
vided into  four  groups :  (1)  the 
Altai  system ;  (2)  the  Hindoo 
Koosh;  (3)  the  Himalayas; 
(4)  the  Armenian  group. 

ft  The  Altai  System  separates 
the  great  northern  plain  of 
Siberia  from  the  steppes  of 
Mongolia  and  Mantchooria, 

7.  The  Hindoo  Koosh  sep- 
arates the  great  desert  of  Gobi  from  China  and  Thibet,  and  divides 
the  steppes  of  Turkestan  from  the  table-land  of  Persia. 

ft  The  Himalayas,  from  the  extreme  western  point,  where  the 
Indus  cuts  through  it  to  the  Brahmapo<itTO,  measure  2,000  miles 
in  length,  with  an  avenige  breadtli  of  nearly  200  miles.  In  the 
middle  of  the  range  rises  the  stupendous  jieak  of  Mt  Everest  (or 


110 


ASIA. 


Gaurisankar),  29,002  feet  above  the  sea-level,  with  several  others 
of  little  less  elevation. 

Note. — The  summit  of  Mount  Illampu  in  Bolivia,  believed  to  be  the  highest  peak 
of  the  Andes,  is  24,812  feet :  it  is  therefore  nearly  a  mile  below  the  summit  of  Mount 
Everest. 

9.  The  Armenian  Group,  of  which  Mount  Ararat  is  the  culmi- 
nating point,  lies  in  parallel  folds  at  the  head  of  the  peninsula  of 
Asia  Minor,  between  the  Caspian,  the  Black,  and  the  Mediter- 
ranean seas. 

10.  Plateaus.  —  The  principal  plateaus  are  :  Thibet,  from  15,000 
to    16,000    feet    in   altitude  ;   R„sgia,  France,  Sweden,  and  Belgium. 
[ffo'be] ;  Iran  (Persia),  Asia  IVBelgium,  and  France. 

IL    Rivers. -The  rivers    of  ^.'i^'^/"^  Norway^  Germany,  and  Austria. 

aui,  oweden  and  JSorway,  Uenmark,  Holland, 

largest  on  the  globe.     They  Sand  Italy. 

tems,  or  groups,  and  all  rise   in-many,  France,  Italy,  Belgium,  and  Holland, 
central  table-lands  of  the  COnt^i°'  F'^°'=^>  Holland,  Denmark,  and  Italy. 

Portugal,  France  (south),  ItalyA  Wine  and  Oil 
('YBNEsand  Turkey  (south).  /    Countries. 

Flotoing  north  into  the  Arc-]  j^^j^  iorth),    Great  Britain,   Holland,' 
tic  Ocean.  ]  »,    Denmark,    Switzerland,   Ger- 

Lustria,  Russia  (south),  and  Tur- 
•th). 


[obi. 

rVANG-' 


Flowing  east  into  the  Pacific 
Ocean. 


Grain  and 
Grazing 
Countries. 


HoANcan  arrangement  of  the  chief  European 
f  industries,  agricultural,  manufacturing. 


Ahoor 


Mowing  south  into  arms  of  ^ 
the  Indian  Ocean. 


'CAMBq,   Germany,  Austria,   Italy,   Spain,   Holland, 
Irawa  Belgium. 

BRAHUBritain,  France,  Belgium,  and  Switzerland. 
GANGEBritain,  France,  Russia,  Holland,  and  Germany. 
Indus. 

TiGRisl-ATIONS. 

EupiiR  sends  mainly  the  great  staples,  cotton, 

12.   Climate,  etc.  —  The  clim^r  with  pork  and  bacon,  gold  and  sUver. 

is  subject  to  great  extremes  oM''^  ^^  ^^^^^^^  ^  S^"^^  ^^^'^^^  °f  ^'^t"" 

is  not  modified  to  so  great  an  l^'"'^^'     '^^^  following  table  shows  our 

of  the  ocean. 

Asia  is  divided  into  three  Z^^'  ^'''d^are,  and  various  articles  of  use. 


southern  or  tropical,  the  midd, 
cold.  The  principal  characte: 
following  table :  — 


les,  ribbons,  wines  and  brandies,  and  various 


Countries. 


/The  Southern  peninsulas. 

Southern  Zone.  J      — Arabia,  India,  Fartlier 

V     India,  and  part  of  China. 


Central  Zone . 


'  1.  The  vast  plateaa  region, 
including  most  of  China. 
2.  Turkestan.  3.  Afgha- 
nistan. 4.  Persia.  5.  Tur- 

^     key. 
1.  The  greater  part  of  Si- 
beria.   2.  Kamchatka. 


Climate. 


TropioaL 


Harked  by  the  four 
seasons  with  regu- 
lar changes  from 
one  to  the  other. 


Marked  by  long  cold 
winters  and  short 


Vegetation. 


Rice,  cotton,  sugar-cane, 
and  tropical  fruits  ; 
the  poppy  (opium)  and 
spices ;  the  palm  and 
bamboo. 

Tea,  wheat,  oats,  barley, 
rye,  and  the  fhiita  of 
the  temperate  zone. 
Forest  trees:  oak,  pine, 
etc. 

Only  scanty  vegetation. 


Northern  Zone,  i 

Holland Linen,  cheese,  gin,  and  herrings. 

Belgium Lace,  thread,  carpets,  and  glass. 

Sv^itzerland... Watches,  cheese,  and  wood  carvings. 

Spain Olive  oil,  sherry  wine,  oranges,  figs,  raisins,  and  cork. 

Portugal Port  wine,  lemons,  and  cork. 

Italy Olive-oil,  lemons,  marble,  cameos,  rags,  and  coral. 

Greece Currants,  figs,  and  olive-oiL 

Turkey Opium,  tobacco,  raisins,  figs,  sponge,  and  carpets. 

IV.  RELIGION. 

The  leading  religions  of  Europe  are  :  Catholicity,  in  its  two  forms,  the 
Latin  or  Roman  CathoUc  Church  and  the  Greek  CathoUc  Church ;  and 
Protestantism  in  its  various  forms. 

The  Roman  Catholic  Countries  are  France,  Spain,  Portugal,  Italy,  Austria, 
Belgium,  and  Ireland. 

The  Greek  Catholic  Countries  are  Russia,  Greece,  and  the  Turkish  Provinces. 

The  Protestant  Countries  are  England  and  Scotland,  Germany  (greater  part), 
Holland,  Sweden  and  Norway,  Denmark,  Switzerland  (greater  part). 

V.  POLITICAL   SUMMARY. 

According  to  their  importance  the  nations  of  Europe  may  be  divided 
into  three  classes:  (1)  The  "First-Rate"  Powers;  (2)  the  Second-Rate 
Powers ;  (3)  the  Minor  Powers. 

The  Five  "  First-Rate "  Powers  are  Great  Britain,  Germany,  France,  Russia, 
and  Austria. 

The  Four  Second-Rate  Powers  are  Italy,  Spain,  Sweden  and  Norway,  and 
Turkey. 

All  the  other  nations  are  classed  politically  as  Minor  Powers.  The  petty  republics 
of  Andorra  and  San  Marino  are  of  no  political  importance. 


Population. 


35,250,000 
37,500,000 

45,200,000 

39,000,000 
75,000,000 

6,500,000 

4,000,000 
5,350,000 
2,000,000 
2,850,000 

16,250,000 

.    ^        4,^500,000 
4.   w  liat  13  tne  name 


Situation  and  Extent  —  L  Be 

2.  Between  what  two  meridians  ?  Ar 
180°  east  longitude  (Greenwich).  3.  M 
the  east  ?  5.  What  ocean  on  the  sout] 
7.  How  much  of  Europe  lies  to  the  noi 

Outline.  —  1.  What  is  the  charact^ 
four  great  inbreakings  of  the  ocean 

3.  What  large  peninsula  west  of  Beri 
Okhotsk'  Sea?    5.    What  group  of 
6.  Where  is  the  peninsula  of  Co-re'a 
great  peninsulas  in  the  south  of  A 
India  ?    9.  Where  is  the  Arabian  Se 

Mountains.  —  1.  Which  part  of  A 
tains  between  India  and  Thibet  ?  3| 
Mountains  ;  —  the  Altai  chain, 
the  Altai  chain  ?  5.  What  ranges  partly  traverse  the  desert  of  Gobi  ?  6.  What 
mountains  in  the  peninsula  of  India  ?  7.  What  two  ranges  form  partial  boundaries 
between  Asia  and  Europe  ?    8.  Where  is  Mt.  Ararat  ?  —  Mt.  Everest  ? 

Lakes.  —  1.  What  great  lake,  called  a  sea,  north  of  Persia  ?  2.  Describe  Aral 
Sea.     3.  Where  is  Lake  Balkhash  ?    4.  What  large  lake  in  Siberia  ? 

Rivers.  —  1.  What  three  large  rivers  flow  into  the  Arctic  Ocean  ?  2.  Describe 
the  course  of  the  Amoor  River.     3.  What  are  the  two  principal  rivers  of  China  ? 

4.  What  aiB  the  rivers  of  Indo-China  ?    5.  Where  does  the  Ganges  rise  ?    6.  What 


Capitals. 


London. 
Paris. 

Berlin. 


Vienna. 

St.  Petersburg. 

Stockholm. 

The  Hague. 
Brussels. 
Copenhagen. 
Berne. 

Madrid. 

Lisbon. 

ot  tne  eastern  contmuatioh'oi 


Largest  City  and  Population. 


London  (4,765,000). 
Paris  (2,225,000). 

Berlin  (1,125,000). 


Vienna  (1,105,000). 

St.  Petersburg  (900,000), 

Stockholm  (175,000). 

Amsterdam  (325,000). 
Brussels  (400,000). 
Copenhagen  (235,000). 
Zurich  (76,000). 

Madrid  (398,000). 
Lisbon  (223^000), 


Form  of  Government,  etc. 


Constitutional  monarchy  ;  legislature  called  Parliament,  —  House 
of  Lords,  and  House  of  Commons. 


Republic,  under  a  president ;  legislature  called  Corps  Legislatif,  — 
a  Senate  and  Chamber  of  Deputies. 

Constitutional  monarchy,  under  an  emperor ;  legislature  called 
the  Reichstag. 

Constitutional  monarchy,  under  an  emjjeror. 

Absolute  monarchy,  under  an  emperor  called  the  Czar. 

Constitutional  monarchy  ;  legislature  called  the  Diet ;  in  Norway 
the  Storthing. 

Constitutional  monarchy  ;  legislature  called  the  States-General. 

Constitutional  monarchy,  legislature  of  two  Chambers. 

Constitutional  monarchy,  with  provincial  legislatures. 

Republic,  under  a  president ;  legislature  consisting  of  a  Senate 
and  a  National  Council. 

Monarchy  ;  legislature  called  the  Cortes. 

Constitutional  monarchy  ;  legislature  called  the  Cortes.  >  hat 

city  in  the  Delta  of  the  Ganges  ?    5.  On  which  coast  is  Bombay  ?    B.  What  city  in 
Ceylon  ? 
1.  What  two  countries  between  India  and  Persia  ?    2.  Where  is  Kelat  ?  —  Cabool  ? 

3.  What  country  north  of  Afghanistan'  ?    4.  Name  two  cities  in  this  country. 

1.  Bound  Persia.  2.  Where  is  its  capital  ?  3.  Bound  Arabia  ?  4.  What  two 
countries  in  the  southern  part  of  Arabia  ?    5.  Where  is  Mecca  ?  —  Mocha  ?  —  Muscat  ? 

1.  Name  the  principal  countries  within  the  boundaries  of  Turkey  in  Asia. 
2.  What  city  on  the  lower  course  of  the  Euphrates  ?    3.  What  ancient  city  in  Syria  ? 

4.  Name  a  seap«rt  on  the  Black  Sea.     5.  Where  is  Smyrna  ? 


112 


ASIA. 


THt    GREAT    WALL    OF 


CHINESE   EMPIRE. 

L  Situation  and  Extent.  —  The 
Chinese  Empire  occupies  the 
middle-eastern  part  of  Asia, — 
an  area  larger  than  the  whole  of 
Europe.  It  has  a  population  of 
over  400  millions,  or  about  one 
third  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
globe. 

2.  Divisions.  —  This  immense 
territory  includes  two  parts :  (1) 
China  Proper,  which,  though  con- 
stituting only  about  one  third 
of  the  area,  contains  nearly  all 
the  population  of  the  empire; 
(2)  the  subject  countries,  com- 
prising Chinese  Tartary,  Thibet, 
and  Corea. 

3.  Inhabitants.  —  The   inhabit 
tauts  of  the  Chinese  Empire  all 
belong   to   the  Mongolian   racej 
though  they  present  considerable  difference  of  appearance  in  the 
several  parts  of  the  empire. 

I.    CHINA    PROPER.  j 

4.  Physical  Features.  —  China  Proper  presents  a  very  varied  sur- 
face, but,  generally  speaking,  it  consists  of  the  broad  plains  or 
basins  of  the  Hoang-ho  {Yellow  River)  and  the  Yang-tse-Kiang 
{Son  of  the  Ocean)  rivers,  together  with  an  extensive  highland  and 
mountainous  region  in  the  southi  and  west. 

5.  Resources.  ^ —  The  fertile  soil,  of  the  alluvial  plains,  the  valuable 
mines  of  iron,  copper,  and  coal,  and  the  facilities  for  communication 
afforded  by  the  great  navigable  rivers,  form  the  principal  natural 
advantages  of  this  country. 

6.  The  leading  industries  are  {X)  agriculture,  comprising  the  pro- 
duction of  rice  and  millet  for  fooid,  and  of  tea  and  silk  for  domestic 
use  and  export ;  (2)  manufactures,  which  are  mainly  confined  to 
silks,  shawls,  porcelain,  and  carved  ivory. 

Tea.  —  The  tea-plant  is  an  evergreen  shrub  growing  five  or  six  feet  high ;  the 
leaves  are  gathered  and  dried  in  shallow  pans  placed  over  charcoal  fires.  Tea  has 
been  used  in  China  as  a  drink  from  time  immemorial.  It  was  introduced  into 
Europe  about  two  hundred  years  ago,  atid  has  become  a  universal  beverage. 

Silk.  —  This  is  a  great  article  of  expoi  t.  The  art  of  rearing  silk -worms  and  of  un- 
raveling the  threads  of  cocoons  was  first  practiced  by  the  Chinese.  From  China  the 
silk  culture  extended  to  Hindostan,  thince  to  Greece,  next  to  Italy,  France,  and 
Spain,  and  finally  to  California,  comple  ing  the  circuit  of  the  land  surface  of  the 
globe.  Silk  is  a  common  article  of  drei  s  in  China  for  men  as  well  as  for  women. 
Chinese  silk  is  all  woven  in  hand-looms. 

7.  Commerce.  —  The  internal  rade  is  immense,  and  is  carried  on 
by  means  of  the  great  rivers  and  long  canals;  the  foreign  com- 
merce is  limited  chiefly  to  exporting  tea,  silk,  rice,  nankeen,  etc. 

8.  Civilization.  —  The  civiUzation  of  China  was  already  flourish- 
ing at  a  time  when  the  Christian  nations  had  no  existence.  "With 
the  exception  of  the  steam-engine  and  the  electric  telegraph  there 
is  scarcely  any  great  invention  of  modem  times  which  has  not  been 
in  use  among  the  Chinese  for  many  centuries.  Still,  they  cannot 
be  regarded  as  a  progressive  people,  and  their  conceit  prevents 
their  learning  new  ideas.  It  is  but  recently  that  China  has  been 
opened  to  the  world. 


Customs.  —  The  Chinese  have  many 
peculiar  manners  and  customs.  Their 
written  language  is  the  same  all  over 
the  empire,  but  they  speak  a  variety  of 
dialects,  and  the  people  of  one  province 
cannot  understand  those  of  another.  The 
men  shave  a  part  of  the  head  instead  of 
the  face,  and  wear  their  hair  in  a  long 
qiceue,  orpig-tail.  Theytakeoff thcirshoes 
instead  of  their  hats  when  they  enter  a 
house.  They  eat  with  two  small  sticks 
instead  of  with  knives  and  forks.  In  a 
Chinese  book  you  begin  at  the  last  page 
and  read  backward  to  the  first.  In  school 
Chinese  scholars  recite  with  their  backs 
turned  to  the  teacher,  and  they  study  by 
reading  aloud  at  the  top  of  their  voices. 
They  educate  the  boys,  but  not  the  girls. 
They  use  very  little  tobacco,  but  smoke 
opium  and  chew  the  betel-nut.  The  place 
of  honor  is  on  the  left  hand  instead  of  the 
right.  A  Chinaman  shakes  his  own  hand 
instead  of  that  of  his  friend. 

Chinese  WaU.  —  The  Great  Wall  of 
China,  the  most  gigantic  work  of  defense 
ever  erected  by  man,  was  built  before  the 
Christian  era,  and  was  intended  as  a  bul- 
wark against  the  invasions  of  the  Tartars. 
It  has  a  length  of  about  1,500  miles,  and 
a  height  of  from  15  to  30  feet. 

9.  Cities.  —  Peking  (1,650,000),  the  capitalof  the  empire,  is  in 
the  northern  part  of  China.  It  is  an  unpaved  and  undrained  city, 
with  dirty,  naiTow  streets,  and  low,  mean  houses.  The  next  most 
important  places  are  :  — 


Names. 


Soo-Chow. 
Canton. 

Kin-te-Chlng. 

Chang- Sha. 

Amoy. 

Foo-Chow. 

STankin. 

ITingpo. 

Shanghai. 

Hong-Kong. 


Population. 


800,000 
1,600,000 


1,000,000 
1,000,000 
88,000 
630,000 
150,000 
260,000 
275,000 
125,000 


Characteristics. 


Is  a  beautiful  interior  city  on  the  Yang-tse-Kiang;  has  large 
manufactures  and  extensive  trade. 

Is  the  greatest  commercial  port  of  Eastern  Asia,  and  is  largely 
engaged  in  shipping  tea,  silli,  and  other  products  and  manu- 
factures. 

Is  largely  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  porcelain-ware. 

Is  the  chief  center  of  the  silk  manufacture. 

Is  the  port  of  Chang-Sha. 

Is  the  center  of  one  of  the  tea  districts. 

Has  important  manufactures  and  extensive  commerce. 

Is  a  seaport  engaged  in  exporting  Cliinese  products. 

Is  the  greatest  mart  for  tea  and  silk. 

On  a  small  island  of  the  same  name,  belongs  to  Great  Britain, 
and  Is  the  chief  seat  of  British  commerce. 


II.    SUBJECT  COUNTRIES. 

10.  Chinese  Tartary,  consisting  of  Soougaria,  Mongolia,  and 
Mantchooria,  occupies  the  great  central  table-land  of  Asia.  It  is 
thinly  peopled  by  wandering  tribes  of  Mongol  Tartars,  living 
under  various  chiefs  and  paying  tribute  to  the  Emperor  of  China. 

IL  Thibet  occupies  a  lofty  plateau,  the  greater  part  of  which  is 
so  cold  as  to  be  almost  barren.  In  the  lower  valleys  are  grassy 
steppes  on  which  vast  herds  of  sheep  and  mountain-goats  are 
raised. 

This  country  is  the  chief  seat  of  the  worship  of  Buddha,  who  is 
supposed  to  live  in  the  person  of  the  high-priest,  called  the  Grand 
Lama.     Lassa  (60,000)  is  the  capital. 

12.  Corea  is  a  country  of  "which  little  is  known,  as  its  inhabi- 
tants are  exceedingly  jealous  of  intercourse  with  strangers.  Along 
the  coast  it  is  fertile,  and  a  considerable  trade  in  rice,  cotton,  furs, 
and  rock-salt  is  carried  on  with  Japan.  Corea  has  its  own  govern- 
ment, but  pays  tribute  to  China. 

Note.  —  The  island  of  Formosa  belongs  to  China.  It  is  fertile,  and  yields  great 
quantities  of  rice,  sugar,  camphor,  and  jute.  Hainan  Island  also  belongs  to 
China. 


JAPAN,  INDO-CHINA,  AND  BRITISH  ASIA. 


113 


THE   EMPIRE   OF   JAPAN. 


L  The  Empire  of  Japan  consists  of  a  group  of  islands  situated 
eastward  of  Asia. 

Resemblance  to  Great  Britain.  —  The  Japanese  Islands  have  the  same  rela- 
tion to  Asia  that  the  British  Isles  boar  to  Europe.  They  are  in  nearly  the  same 
latitude  as  the  British  Isles,  have  nearly  the  same  area  and  population,  and  have  a 
similar  climate. 

2.  Physical  Featnres.  —  The  Japanese  Islands  are  mountainous 
and  contain  numerous  volcanoes.  The  mountains  are  covered  with 
a  luxuriant  growth  of  forest  trees,  and  the  islands  are  characterized 
by  the  richness  of  their  verdure. 

3.  Industries.  —  Agriculture  and  horticulture  are  skillfully  carried 
on.     Rice  and  tea  are  the  chief  crops. 

The  fisheries  are  very  important,  fish  being  the  principal  food. 
Various  mechanical  arts  are  skillfully  practiced. 
The  chief  exports  are  tea  and  silk,  lacquered-ware,  bronzes,  and 
wood-carvings. 

4.  Civilization.  —  The  Japanese  are  the  most  highly  civilized  and 
the  most  progressive  of  the  Mongolian  race.  They  are  now  rapidly 
introducing  railroads,  telegraphs,  and  improved  machinery  of  all 
kinds,  and  have  established  public  and  scientific  schools  under  the 
instruction  of  European  and  American  teachers. 

6.  Cities.  —  Tokio  (formerly  called  Yeddo)  is  the  capital  of  the 
empire  and  the  center  of  the  inland  and  domestic  trade  of  Japan. 
It  has  over  a  million  of  inhabitants.  The  next  most  important 
places  are: — 


Kama*. 

PopQlation. 

OhuactwisUo*. 

ViAlco 

(or  Kioto). 

230,000 

ti  the  litem;  center  of  Jtixn ;  tt  has  also  exUnsIre  manufactories. 

OiaOu. 

200,000 

la  a  seaport  and  commercial  center ;  it  is  open  to  foreign  tnulo. 

Kageii'm*. 
Kagaiald. 

150,000  "1 
47,000  J 

Are  Important  aeaports  in  tiie  iaiand  of  Kliula,  the  most  aoutherly 
of  the  Japan  Islands. 

Tokoha/nui. 

07,000 

A  city  of  recent  growth.  Is  the  port  of  Teddo,  and  the  chief  seat  of 
trade  with  the  Japanese  capital ;  it  is  the  principal  residence  of 
Um  foreign  marBbsots. 

ment  studiously  kept  the  common  |K3oplo  from  any  intercourse  with  foreigners.  In 
1854  the  United  States  sent  a  large  naval  expedition,  under  command  of  Commodore 
Terry,  who  induced  the  Japanese  government  to  make  a  treaty  by  which  the  porta  of 
.Simoda  and  Hakodadi  were  opened  for  trade,  and  by  which  United  States  consuls 
were  allowed  to  reside  in  Jai)au.  A  little  later  similar  privileges  were  allowed  to  Eng- 
land, France,  and  Kussia. 


INDO-OHINA. 


Historical.  —  Japan,  like  China,  kept  itself  aloof  for  ages  from  other  nations. 
Some  trade  was  allowed  with  China  and  with  the  Dutch  in  one  port,  but  the  govern- 


L  Situation.  —  Indo-China,  the  Eastern  Peninsula  of  Southern 
Asia,  extends  from  the  Bay  of  Bengal  to  the  China  Sea. 

2.  The  Countries. — Within  this  region  are  comprehended  three 

distinct  countries,  —  the  empire  of  Burmah,  the  kingdom  of  Siam, 

and  the  empire  of  Anam'.     The  population  of  the  first  is  about 

three  millions,  of  the  second  about  five  millions,  and  of  the  third 

about  thirteen  millions.     In  race  and  religion  the  people  are  closely 

related  to  the  Chinese. 

Note.  —  In  addition  to  these  countries  are  British  Burmah ;  Lower  Cochin  China,  a 
ilependency  of  France  ;  and  Cambodia,  a  small  native  kingdom  under  French  protec- 
tion.    Yunan,  which  was  formerly  a  province  of  China,  is  now  independent. 

3.  Climate  and  Productions.  —  The  climate  is  hot,  moist,  and 
often  unhealthy  in  the  low  grounds.  The  vegetable  productions 
are  of  great  luxuriance  and  the  highest  value. 

4.  The  industry  is  chiefly  agricidtural.  Eice,  sugar,  the  mul- 
berry-tree, cotton,  indigo,  and  tobacco  are  largely  grown  :  rice  is  the 
principal  article  of  food.  These  countries  are  rich  in  gold,  tin,  cop- 
per, lead,  and  zinc ;  mining  is  carried  on  to  a  considerable  extent. 

5.  Commerce.  —  The  principal  exports  are  rice,  tobacco,  sugar, 
and  spices. 

French  Possessions.  —  The  southern  part  of  Cochin  China,  including  the  town 
and  province  of  Saigon  [si-gon'],  with  the  mouths  of  the  great  river  Mekong, 
belongs  to  France,  and  considerable  progress  has  been  made  by  the  French  in 
developing  the  resources  of  this  region. 

6.  Citiea  —  The  principal  cities  of  Indo-China  are :  — 


Names. 

Population. 

Chaiacteristica, 

Bankok. 
Saigon. 
Mandalay, 
Hn<. 

500,000 

100,000 

90,000 
50,000 

Is  the  capital  of  Siam,  and  the  hitgest  city  of  Indo-China. 
Is  the  chief  seat  of  French  power  In  Indo-China. 
Is  the  capital  of  Burmah. 
Is  tlie  capital  of  Anam. 

BRITISH  ASIA. 


L  Divisions.  —  The  British  possessions  in  Asia  include  British 
India,  the  island  of  Ceylon,  British  Burmah,  and  the  "  Straits  Set- 
tlements." 

Native  States.  —  The  parts  of  India  that  are  not  under  British  rule  comprise 
various  native  states.  These  belong  to  two  cla.sses  :  The  Independent  States,  now 
reduced  to  three,  namely  Cashmere,  Nepal',  and  Bootan'  j  and  a  considerable  num- 
ber of  "  Protected  States,"  which  are  under  various  forma  of  native  sovereignty,  the 
ruler  bearing  in  most  cases  the  title  of  Rtgah. 

I.    BRITISH    INDIA. 

2.  Situation.  —  India  occupies  the  great  central  peninsula  of 
tropical  Asia  and  the  r^on  northward  to  the  Himalaya  Moun- 
tains, comprising  an  area  nearly  half  as  large  as  that  of  the  United 
States. 

3.  Inhabitants.  —  It  is  inhabited  by  nearly  two  hundred  millions 
of  people,  most  of  whom  are  Hindoos.  About  half  of  this  region, 
comprising  three  fourths  of  the  population,  is  under  British  rule. 


114 


ASIA. 


4.  Physical  Features.  —  In  the 
north  is  the  great  mouutain  bar- 
rier of  the  Himalaya  Mountains ; 
their  highest  elevation  is  Mount 
Everest,  the  loftiest  summit  on 
the  globe.  To  the  south  of  these 
are  the  extensive  plains  of  the 
Ganges  and  the  Indus ;  still  far- 
ther south  is  the  table-land  of  the 
Deccan,  bounded  on  the  eastern 
and  the  western  sides  by  the 
Ghauts. 

The  climate  of  India,  except  in 
the  elevated  Himalaya  regions,  is 
strictly  tropical,  with  two  seasons, 
the  wet  and  the  diy. 

5.  Resources.  —  The  principal 
natural  advantages  of  this  region 
are :  (1)  its  moist  tropical  climate 
and  the  fertile  soil  of  its  great 
river-  basins,  which  admirably 
adapt  it  to  the  growth  of  the 
most  valuable  vegetable  produc- 
tions ;  (2)  its  vast  forests  of  teak, 
cocoa,  bamboo,  banyan,  and  vari- 
ous palms  ;  and  (3)  its  extensive 
deposits  of  coal  and  iron,  which 
are  of  far  greater  value  than  the 
gold  and  gems  for  which  India  is 
traditionally  celebrated. 

6.  The  leading  industry  is  agriculture.  The  great  staples  are 
rice,  which  is  the  principal  article  of  food,  and  cotton,  jute,  silk, 
opium,  and  indigo,  which  are  raised  for  export. 

Cotton.  —  In  cotton-raising  India  ranks  next  to  the  United  States. 

Jute.  —  This  is  a  fibrous  plant,  like  hemp  and  flax  ;  it  is  used  in  making  gunny- 
bags,  and  is  also  mixed  with  silk  to  make  cheap  satins. 

Silk.  —  Large  quantities  of  raw  sUk  are  sent  to  England  to  be  spun  and  woven. 

Opium.  —  Vast  quantities  of  this  article  are  exported  to  China,  where  opium- 
smoking  is  the  besetting  vice  of  the  people. 

Indigo.  —  Most  of  the  indigo  of  commerce  is  exported  from  India. 

7.  Manufactures.  —  Fine  silk  and  cotton  fabrics,  with  shawls 
and  various  articles  of  ornamental  attire,  constitute  the  chief 
products  of  Indian  manufacturing  skill. 

8.  Commerca  —  The  import  of  manufactured  goods  (principally 
from  England)  and  the  export  of  raw  produce  —  chiefly  cotton, 
opium,  indigo,  and  rice  —  are  the  distinguishing  features  of  Indian 
commerce. 

The  recent  introduction  of  railroads  has  greatly  aided  in  devel- 
oping the  inland  trade. 

9.  Cities.  —  The  chief  cities  of  British  India  are :  — 


MOUNT    EVEREST.     IN    THE    HIMALAYAS, 


Kames. 

Population. 

Characteristics. 

Bombay'. 
Calcutta. 

Kadrai'. 

Laoknow. 

Patna. 

Del-hi. 

Bena'res. 

775,000 
683,000 

406,000 
260,000 
170,000 
173,000 
200,000 

Is  a  great  commercial  city,  and  the  chief  seaport  for  the  French 
and  the  English  lines  of  steamers,  by  way  of  the  Suez  Canal. 

Ranks  commercially  as  the  chief  city  of  India  :  it  has  extensive 
manufactures,  and  is  the  residence  of  the  British  govemor- 
generaL 

Is  the  chief  city  on  the  southeast  coast. 

Is  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Oude  ;  has  large  river  trade. 

On  the  Ganges  ;  has  an  extensive  trade  in  opium,  rice,  etc. 

Is  the  ancient  capital  of  India. 

Is  the  sacred  city  of  the  Brahmins,  and  the  old  Hindoo  capital. 

Population  —  The  Hindoos,  though 
of  a  brown  complexion,  belong  to  the  Cau- 
casian race.  The  common  people  are  poor, 
ignorant,  and  superstitious.  Only  the 
wealthier  classes  are  educated,  and  women 
are  not  educated  at  all.  The  British 
maintain  their  jx)wer  by  a  standing  army 
made  up  mostly  of  natives,  or  Sepoys, 
commanded  by  English  officers.  Brahmin- 
ism  is  the  prevailing  religion,  but  there 
are  many  Buddhists  and  some  Moham- 
medans and  Parsees.  The  sacred  books  of 
the  Brahminic  religion,  called  the  Vedas, 
were  written  at  least  2,500  years  before 
the  Christian  era. 

II.  CEYLON. 

10.  Description.  —  This  large 
and  productive  island  is  governed 
apart  from  India  as  a  British  col- 
ony. It  has  upwards  of  two 
million  inhabitants.  The  most 
characteristic  productions  are  the 
cinnamon-plant  and  the  cocoa- 
palm.     Coflee  is  largely  grown. 

IL  Cities.— Colom'bo  (100,000) 
is  the  cajjital  and  chief  commer- 
cial emporium  of  Ceylon.  Point 
DE  Galle  is  the  principal  seaport. 

III.  BRITISH    BURMAH. 

12.  Description.  —  British  Bur- 
mab,  the  name  given  the  British 
possessions  in  the  Eastern  Penin- 
sula, comprises  the  provinces  of 

It  is  under  the  administration 


Aracan',  Pegu',  and  Tenas'serim. 
of  the  general  government  of  India. 

13.  Products.  —  In  physical  features  and  productions  this  coun- 
try resembles  British  India. 

14.  BaJigoon,  on  the  Irawaddy,  is  the  largest  and  most  commer- 
cial city  of  British  Burmah. 

IV.    THE   STRAITS   SETTLEMENTS. 

15.  Description.  —  The  Straits  Settlements  comprise  the  three 
distinct  territories  of  Penang'  Island,  Malacca,  and  Singapore',  and 
form  a  separate  British  colony. 

The  possession  of  these  three  stations  gives  Britain  the  complete 
command  of  the  passage  to  China  by  the  Strait  of  Malacca. 

16.  The  chief  exports  are  cloves,  mace,  sago,  and  gutta-percha 

17.  Singapore,  on  the  island  of  that  name,  is  a  flourishing  seat 
of  trade,  —  one  of  the  great  marts  of  East  Asiatic  commerce. 


ASIATIC    RUSSIA. 

L  Divisions,  —  The  Eussian  possessions  in  Asia  comprise  the 
extensive  country  of  Siberia,  with  Trans-Caucasia,  and  Soongaria. 

I.    SIBERIA. 

2.  Physical  Features.  —  This  immense  country,  lai^er  in  area 
than  Europe,  occupies  the  whole  of  the  great  northern  plain  of 
Asia.  It  consists  almost  entirely  of  steppes  and  marshes,  across 
which  the  Obi,  Yenesei  [i/en-e-say'e],  and  Lena  rivers  wind  their 


ASIATIC  KUSSIA  AND   TUIiKEY. 


115 


sluggish  way  to  the  Arctic  Ocean.    The  climate  is  very  cold,  except 
in  the  southern  jjart,  and  winter  reigns  more  than  half  the  year. 

3.  Besoorces.  —  Except  in  the  valleys  of  the  Upper  Yeuesei  and 
Lena  and  the  Lower  Amoor,  the  soil  of  Siberia  does  not  admit  of 
cultivation.  This  region,  however,  has  nimierous  animals  whose 
furs  are  valuable,  as  the  seal  and  the  ermine ;  its  waters  abound 
in  fish  ;  and  the  rich  mines  yield  gold,  silver,  copper,  platina,  and 
iroa     Tliere  is  a  large  overland  tea-trade  with  China. 

4.  People.  —  Of  the  population  of  about  three  millions  three 
fourths  consist  of  Mongolian  tribes,  savage  and  degraded,  while 
Russian  exiles  and  their  descendants,  together  with  Russian  troops 
and  officials,  constitute  the  remainder. 

5.  Cities.  —  Toboi.sk',  Tomsk,  and  Irkutsk  are  the  chief  places. 
Kjachta  [ke-aUta]  is  the  center  of  trade  with  China. 

II.  TRANS  CAUCASIA. 

6.  Description.  —  Trans-Caucasia  is  the  name  given  to  that  part 
of  the  Russian  Empire  which  lies  south  of  the  main  ridge  of  the 
Caucasus  range,  —  the  dividing  line  between  Asia  and  Europe. 
It  is  a  mountain  region.  The  Caucasus  Mountain  chain  rises  alx)ve 
the  snow-line,  and  Elburz'  is  its  highest  summit.  In  the  southern 
part,  on  the  border  of  Persia  and  Turkey,  is  Mount  Ararat,  over 
17,000  feet  high. 

7.  Productions.  —  Agriculture  is  the  chief  branch  of  industry ; 
the  principal  productions  are  the  vine,  the  mulberry,  and  the  cot- 
ton-plant 

8.  Population.  —  The  inhabitants  (numbering  about  three  mil- 
lions) comprise  people  of  various  races,  —  Georgians,  Circassians, 
Armenians,  etc.     The  majority  belong  to  the  Christian  Church. 

TiFLis  [ti/-leeif]  is  the  chief  city. 

III.  RUSSIAN    TURKESTAN. 

9.  Bussian  Turkestan  includes  all  the  more  recent  additions 
to  the  rapidly  growing  dominion  of  Russia  in  Asia. 

This  region  lying  between  the  Caspian  Sea  and  the  Chinese  Em- 
pire, is  politically  and  commercially  important  as  commanding  tlie 
grand  route  of  the  caravan-trade  between  China  and  Western  Asia. 


SOURCE   OF   THE   TIGRIS. 


TURKEY  IN  ASIA. 

L  Sitoation.  —  Asiatic 
Turkey  comprises  the 
western  part  of  Asia,  and 
includes  the  seat  of  many 
ancient  nations,  among 
which  are  Phoenicia,  the 
Holy  Land,  the  States  of 
Asia  Minor,  Assyria,  Baby- 
lonia, and  Chaldea. 

2.    Divisions.  —  Under 

modern  Turkish  rule,  this 

region  is  divided  into  four 

provinces  :    Asia    Minor, 

Syria,  Armenia,  and  Mesoixjtamia  (Al  Jezi'reh). 

3.  Population.  —  The  various  races  are  separated  from  one  another 
by  language  and  religion.  The  majority  are  Mohammedans, — 
mainly  Turks  in  Asia  Minor,  and  Arabs  in  the  provinces  to  the 
south ;  tlie  Clnistiuus  are  mostly  Greeks  and  Armenians. 

i.  Industries.  —  Though  the  soil  is  highly  productive,  agriculture 
is  little  practiced,  except  near  large  towns,  owing  to  the  country's 
being  infested  with  bands  of  robbers. 

Wandering  tribes,  j)ossessing  large  flocks  and  herds,  inhabit  the 
central  table-land  of  the  Syrian  desert. 

The  manufactures  of  silk,  cotton,  and  leather  are  of  considerable 
importance,  but,  generally  speaking,  there  is  a  great  stagnation  of 
industry  and  enterprise.  The  chief  exports  are  opium,  tobacco, 
attar-of-roses,  figs,  dates,  silk,  and  leather. 

6.  The  Political  Divisions  aie  shown  in  the  following  table :  — 


Provinces. 


Asia  Minor. 

Syria. 
Armenia. 

Al  Jezireh. 


Cities. 


1  (150,000).~| 
(70,000).  I 
I  (28,000).  J 


/Smynia  (150,000).    \ 
'\^Brusa  (60,000).         / 

{Damascus  (150,000).^ 
licy'rout  (7 
Jerusalem  I 

Erzcroum'  (60,000). 

(•Basra  (50,000). 
i  MdsuI  (10,000). 
l^ltogilad  (40,000). 


Characteristics. 


Asia  Uiuor  is  a  mountain  peninsula,  vith  fertile  vaUers. 


Syria  includes  Palestine,  or  the  Holy  Land, and  Phoenicia. 


Armenia,  a  pastoral  country,  consists  chiefly  of  elevated 
table-lauds  and  mountaius. 

Mesopotamia  (Al  Jezireii)  was  the  seat  of  the  Assyrian 
and  liibylonian  empirus ;  but  rauch  of  the  country  is 
now  a  desert. 


MOUNT    ARARAT. 


MINOR  ASIATIC  COUNTRIES. 

I.    TURKESTAN. 

L  Description.  —  Turkestan  is  an  extensive  country  containing 
vast  sandy  wastes,  and  inhabited  by  a  few  millions  of  Tartar 
Mongols,  who  are  either  wandering  tribes  or  divided  into  petty 
states,  called  k/ianats. 

2.  Divisions.  —  The  three  most  important  of  the  khanats  are  : 
ISokhara,  whose  capital  city,  Bokha'ra,  is,  from  its  caravan-trade, 
me  of  the  most  important  points  of  Central  Asia  ;  Khiva,  capital 
Khiva;  and  Kokand',  with  Kokand  as  its  chief  trading-point 
The  different  khanats  of  this  region  are  under  Russian  control 
and  constitute  a  part  of  Russian  Turkestan. 


116 


ASIA. 


il.    KASHCARIA. 

3.  Eashgaria,  or  Eastern  Turkestan,  formerly  an  independent 
government,  is  now  a  province  of  China. 

It  contains  much  fertile  land,  and  the  grain  and  fruits  of  the 
temperate  zone  are  easily  raised. 

Yarkand'  and  Kashgai-'  are  the  chief  commercial  centers. 

III.  AFGHANISTAN'    AND    BELOOCHISTAN'. 

4.  Description.  —  Both  these  countries  occupy  a  high  plateau, 
traversed  by  mountain-ridges.  The  fertile  parts  comprise  several 
khanats,  inhabited  by  a  settled  population ;  but  the  majority  of 
the  people  consists  of  fierce,  wandering,  and  warlike  tribes,  who 
depend  for  subsistence  mainly  on  their  herds  of  horses,  goats,  asses, 
and  camels. 

5.  Cities.  —  Herat',  on  the  caravan  route  from  Persia  to  India,  is 
a  large  city  of  Afgliauistan,  (Jabool'  is  the  capital.  Kelat  is  the 
capital  of  Beloochistan. 

IV.  PERSIA. 

6.  Physical  Features.  —  The  greater  part  of  Persia  is  a  plateau, 
marked  by  sandy  and  salt  deserts  ;  but  along  the  Persian  Gulf  and 
the  Caspian  Sea  is  a  lowland  region. 

7.  Industries.  —  Of  its  population  of  five  millions,  about  one  third 
are  wandering  shepherds ;  the  remainder  are  a  tolerably  civilized 
people,  who  are  engaged  in  agriculture  and  manufactures. 

The  chief  exports  are  sUks,  shawls,  carpets,  pearls,  rose-water, 
and  assafcetida. 

8.  Civilizatioa  —  Considerable  progress  has  recently  been  made 
in  civilization  in  Persia :  railroads  and  telegraphs  have  been  intro- 
duced, and  efforts  to  promote  education  have  been  made. 

The  government  is  a  monarchy,  under  a  ruler  called  the  Shah, 
and  is  less  despotic  in  its  administration  than  the  other  Asiatic 
governments. 

9.  Cities.— Teheran'  (200,000)  is  the  capital  Tabreez  (120,000) 
is  the  commercial  center.     Bushire  [boo-shee'/]  is  the  chief  seaport. 

V.    ARABIA. 

10.   Physical  Features. — 

The  peninsula  of  Arabia 
is  mostly  a  desert  plateau, 
hemmed  in  from  the  seas 
by  mountain-ranges  all 
along  its  sea-front.  The 
only  fertile  parts  of  Ara- 
bia are  in  the  small  oases 
and  in  the  valleys  of  the 
hilly  region  lying  between 
the  sandy  coast-belt  and 
the  dry  plateau  of  the  in- 
terior. 

IL  Government  —  Ara- 
bia has  no  central  govern- 
ment. It  is  divided  into 
the  pasture-ranges  of  numerous  Bedouin  tribes,  each  of  which  has 
its  own  petty  sheikh,  or  chief. 

A  strip  along  the  coast  of  the  Red  Sea,  including  Mecca  and 
Medina,  belongs  to  Turkey.  In  the  southern  part  are  two  organ- 
ized native  states,  called  Oman  and  Yemen. 


AN  ARAB  SHEIKH. 


12.  Industries.  —  The  industry  of  the  Arabs  is  pastoral  and  com- 
mercial. The  traffic  which  passes  through  the  country  is  consid- 
erable, and  is  carried  on  by  means  of  caravans,  —  that  is,  companies 
of  persons  who  associate  together  for  mutual  protection  in  crossing 
the  wilderness,  consisting  of  merchants,  guides,  soldiers,  and  pil- 
grims.    The  camel  is  uniformly  employed  as  a  beast  of  burden. 

13.  Cities.  —  Muscat  is  the  capital  of  Oman,  Sana  is  the  capital 

of  Yem'en,  and  Mo'cha,  famous  for  its  coffee,  is  its  chief  seaport. 

Note.  —  The  Arabs  are  devout  believers  in  the  Mohammedan  religion.  The 
founder  of  this  widespread  religion  was  Mohammed,  the  great  religious  teacher  of 
the  Arabs,  who  lived  in  the  sixth  century,  and  wrote  his  doctrines  in  the  Koran,  the 
sacred  book  of  his  followers.  He  was  bom  at  Mecca,  and  all  "true  believers"  are 
enjoined  to  visit  the  place  at  least  once  in  their  lives.  Caravans  of  pilgrims  from  all 
parts  of  Arabia,  from  Eastern  Asia,  and  from  Northern  Africa  resort  each  year  to 
Mecca  for  the  purpose  of  combining  trade  with  religion. 


«  »«»  » 


THE  INDIAN  ARCHIPELAGO. 

L  Situation. — Malaysia,  or  the  East  Indian  Archipelago,  includes 
all  those  islands  which  lie  between  Southeastern  Asia  and  Aus- 
tralia.    They  are  situated  entirely  within  the  tropics. 

2.   Islands  and  Groups.  —  These  islands  are  grouped  as  follows :  — 

1.  The  Sunda  Islands,  comprising  the  southernmost  string  of  islands,  and 
including  Sumatra,  Java,  Timor,  and  the  adjacent  isles  eastward  to  the  Arroo 
Islands. 

2.  The  Philippine  Islands,  comprising  the  group  in  the  northern  part  of 
the  Archipelago,  and  including  Luzon  and  Mindanao  as  the  largest  islands. 

3.  Borneo,  Celebes,  and  the  Moluccas  are  the  three  principal  islands  in 
a  group  between  the  Philippines  and  the  Sunda  Islands. 

3.  Physical  Features. — These  islands  are  all  mountainous,  abound- 
ing in  active  and  extinct  volcanoes,  and  are  subject  to  frequent 
earthquakes.  Great  heat  and  moisture,  the  former  tempered  by 
the  sea-breezes,  are  the  characteristics  of  the  climate,  and  conse- 
quently the  vegetation  is  varied  and  luxuriant. 

4.  Divisions.  —  The  Dutch  claim  the  sovereignty  over  the  greater 
portion  of  the  Archipelago ;  the  whole  of  the  Moluccas,  Java,  and 
Sumba'wa,  with  parts  of  Sumatra,  Celebes,  Borneo,  and  Timor,  are 
in  their  possession.  The  Philippines  belong  to  Spain,  and  a  part 
of  Timor  to  the  Portuguese.  The  tribes  occupying  the  interior  of 
Borneo,  Sumatra,  and  other  of  the  large  islands  are  independent. 

5.  Plants  and  Animals.  —  The  forest  trees  yield  a  variety  of  valu- 
able woods,  such  as  ebony,  teak,  sandalwood,  etc.,  and  of  useful 
gums,  of  which  india-rubber  and  gutta-percha  are  the  most  im- 
portant. Among  food-plants  are  the  cocoa  and  sago  palms,  and 
the  banana,  arum,  yam,  and  mango.  Among  the  wild  animals  are 
the  elephant,  tiger,  rhinoceros,  buifalo,  orang-outang,  monkeys,  and 
birds  of  gorgeous  plumage. 

6.  Exports.  —  Java  exports  great  quantities  of  coffee  and  rice ; 
the  Moluccas  supply  the  world  with  nutmegs,  cloves,  and  other 
spices ;  Sumatra  furnishes  india-rubber  and  gutta-percha ;  and  the 
Philippines  produce  sugar,  hemp,  and  tobacco.  Diamonds  are 
found  in  Borneo,  and  gold,  tin,  and  copper  are  widely  distributed. 

7.  People.  —  Numerous  savage  tribes,  of  whom  little  is  known, 
occupy  the  interior  of  these  islands,  but  Malays  dwell  in  the  towns 
and  villages  near  the  coast.  The  latter  are  of  a  brown  color,  with 
lank  hair ;  they  wear  little  clothing,  live  chiefly  on  rice,  fruits,  and 
fish,  and  dwell  in  bamboo  houses,  perched  on  pillars  to  raise  them 
above  the  water.     All  classes  smoke  tobacco  and  chew  the  betel- 


THE  INDIAN  ARCHIPELAGO. 


117 


nut.  They  delight  in  the  water,  their  canoes  and  boats  being  to 
them  what  the  camel  is  to  the  Arab  or  the  dog  to  the  Esquimaux. 
Many  obtain  a  livelihood  by  piracy. 

Hiatorloal.  —  Early  in  tlie  17th  century  (1602)  the  Dutch  East  India  Company 
was  organizcti  for  tlie  purpose  of  monopolizing  the  trade  of  the  East  India  Islands. 
This  company  soon  grew  rich  and  powerful  out  of  their  enormous  profits.  The  Dutch 
fitted  out  fleets  of  armed  merchantmen  that  defied  the  Malay  pirates,  and  contended 
successfully  with  the  navy  of  Spain.  The  prosperity  of  Holland  reached  its  highest 
point,  and  Amsterdam,  Antwerp,  the  Hague,  and  other  jmrts  were  thronged  with 
the  ships  of  all  nations.  The  Dutch  supplied  the  world  with  spices,  cloves,  nutmegs, 
camphor,  sugar,  ootfee,  rice,  indigo,  cotton,  dyes,  drugs,  and  cabinet  woods.  Other 
European  nations  also  engaged  in  profitable  tratfic  with  this  bountiful  region  of  the 
earth,  which  to  this  day  is  a  great  center  of  Interest  in  the  commerce  of  all  nations. 


IMPORTANT   ISLANDS. 

L  Sumatra,  which  is  one  thousand  miles  long  and  two  hundred 
miles  broad,  contains  a  number  of  independent  native  states. 
The  greater  portion  of  the  coast  region  belongs  to  the  Dutch.  The 
Malay  inhabitants  are  divided  into  numerous  tribes  that  speak 
different  dialects  of  one  common  tongue. 

2.  Java  is  the  most  populous  and  important  island  of  the  Archi- 
pelago, and  is  the  chief  seat  of  Dutch  power  in  the  East.  It  is 
celebrated  for  its  immense  production  of  coffee.  Batavia  (100,000), 
the  capital,  is  the  largest  city  in  the  Archipelago. 

Note.  —  No  island  exceeds  Java  in  the  abundance  and  variety  of  its  eatable  fruits 
and  vegetables.  It  has  one  hundred  varieties  of  rice,  and  flowers,  shrubs,  and  orna- 
mental trees  without  number.  Java  is  noted  for  the  upas-tree  which  yields  a  deadly 
poison,  for  its  huge,  poisonous  nettles,  for  its  numerous  tree-ferns,  and  for  its  singu- 
lar raffiesitis.  The  rafllesia  is  a  parasitical  plant,  consisting  of  nothing  but  a  flower, 
the  bud  of  which  is  as  large  as  a  cabbage,  and  the  full-blown  red  flower  three  feet  in 
diameter.     This  magnificent  flower  has  the  smell  of  carrion. 

3.  Borneo,  the  largest  island  of  the  Indian  Archipelago,  ranks  in 


size  next  to  Australia,  Greenland,  and  New  Guinea.  Both  the 
Dutch  and  English  have  settlements  on  the  coast.  This  island  is 
covered  with  dense  forests.  Among  the  vegetable  products  are  the 
inangosteen  and  the  durian,  the  latter  being  one  of  the  most  deli- 
cious of  fruits.  Gutta-percha  is  one  of  the  principal  gum-products. 
The  island  is  also  rich  in  gold,  antimony,  and  diamonds. 

4  Celebes  is  composed  of  four  peninsulas  grouped  around  a  small 
center,  and  in  shape  bears  some  resemblance  to  a  star-fish.  It  is 
eight  hundred  miles  from  north  to  south,  and  has  as  great  an  extent 
of  sea-coast  as  the  United  States.  It  has  elevated,  grassy  table- 
lands, on  which  herds  of  wild  horses  and  buffaloes  are  found  graz- 
ing, as  in  America.  Cacao  and  coffee  are  grown  on  this  island,  and 
sago  is  the  chief  article  of  food.  The  Dutch  possess  the  settlement 
of  Macassar.  • 

Note.  —  Of  the  native  peoples  the  most  important  are  the  Bugis.  They  are  the 
most  enterprising  navigators  of  the  Archipelago.  Their  chief  center  is  near  Lake 
Labaya,  around  which  are  hundreds  of  villages,  and  whose  waters  are  covered  with 
sailing-craft  which  descend  the  river  into  the  open  sea. 

5,  The  Philippine  Islands  are  the  most  northerly  group  of  the 
Indian  Archipelago,  and  are  largely  under  the  control  of  Spain. 
They  comprise  a  vast  number  of  small  islands,  all  of  which  are 
specially  adapted  to  the  growth  of  sugar,  tobacco,  and  hemp. 
Taken  together  they  have  an  area  about  three  times  as  great  as  the 
State  of  Pennsylvania,  with  a  population  of  about  four  millions. 

Manila  (130,000)  is  the  capital  of  the  Spanish  possessions,  and 
is  a  great  seat  of  trade. 

ft  The  Molucca  Group,  or  Spice  Islands,  comprise  a  great  number 
of  small  islands,  which  together  have  an  area  somewhat  larger  than 
the  State  of  Maine.  They  are  famous  for  the  production  of  cloves, 
nutmegs,  and  other  spices.  Most  of  these  islands  are  subject  to 
Dutch  rule,  and  Amboyna  is  the  chief  station  of  the  Dutch  com- 
merce. 


TOPICAL    REVIEW    OF    ASIA. 


Countries. 

Population. 

Name  of  Capital. 

Name  of 
Largest  City. 

Popnlation  of 
Largest  City. 

Form  of  Government,  etc. 

Empire  of  China. 

380,000,000 

Peking. 

Peking. 

1,650,000 

Absolute  monarchy  under  an  emperor. 

Empire  of  Japan. 

35,000,000 

Tokio. 

Tokio. 

1,140,000 

Absolute  monarchy.     Emperor  called  the  Mikado. 

(  Kingdom  of  Anam. 
Indo-      „.     ^ 

■  Kingdom  of  Siam. 
China. 

V  Empire  of  Burmah. 

20,000,000 

Hue. 

Hue. 

50,000 

Absolute  monarchy. 

5,000,000 

Bangkok. 

Bangkok. 

500,000 

(t              11 

4,000,000 

Mandalay. 

Mandalay. 

90,000 

It              <i 

British  India. 

255,000,000 

Calcutta 

Bombay. 

775,000 

j  Colonial  dependency  of  Great  Britain.      Viceroy 
(      called  the  Governor-General. 

(  Siberia. 
Afiatie 

4,000,000 

Irkutsk  and  Tobolsk. 

Irkutsk 

35,000 

Russian  possession. 

_      .     {  Trans-Caucasia. 

5,750,000 

Tiflis. 

Tiflis. 

105,000 

C(                            (1 

\EuMian  Turkestan. 

5,000,000 

Tashkend. 

Tashkend. 

100,000 

((                It 

Khanat  of  Bokhara. 

Bokhara. 

Bokhara. 
Khiva 

65,000^ 
4,000  l 
4,000  j 
150,000 

( These  regions  constitute  a  part  of  Russian  Turke- 
(     Stan. 

Kluuiat  of  Kokand. 

Kokand. 

Kokand 

Asiatic  Turkey. 

10,000,000 

Constantinople. 

Damascus. 

Absolute  monarchy.     Emperor  called  the  Sultan. 

Afghanistan. 

4,000,000 

Herat 

CabooL 

60,000 

Varic  js  independent  khanats. 

Belooehiitan. 

360,000 

Kelat 

Kelat 

15,000 

II              II                11 

?eni*. 

7,650,000 

Teheran. 

Teheran. 

200,000 

Monarchy.     Ruler  called  the  Shah. 

Oman. 

3,700,000 

Muscat 

Muscat 

40,000 

Despotism. 

Temen. 

2,000,000 

Sana. 

Mocha. 

10,000 

II 

East  India  ArcUpeUgo. 

85,000,000 

Manila. 

130,000 

Native  governments,  and  European  poaaessions. 

* 

— v^  4H    ^I'Ocal     Time  P.M'.  when       5       JVoon  on   the    Jtferiilinn      5M 
10  5  TfM(  0  S.iHt  5 


6 of  Wan'Mntfton 


^   ^      Strait  of  Oi&raltar:^'''^"^^ 


mAriS^ 


s^"  «   MALTA 

-  Jii^y   •Kiirwan  ^^f 

^       L>,  ToiKOttrt.fi  \  ...coo*'  ' 

Ki     V-        °^  '"VTargla  /"^  ■     -./ 


•Gtolea 


-Zwxi7       10      7V?7)p  ^1 .  if.  vlten     1]  Noon  tm  the  Merifli'in    12  n/    (,.■.,,,>  u-h 


NORTHERN 
AFRICA 

,>5>  5  Zatituae—1  IncK 

""   ^  A 


AlSIA         MINOB 


^   A    N  S    E 


>"V 


'7> 


'.  ^  TMPIO  OF  CinMBX,- 


ao     XottgitiuU    Went        15       /roiH    Grteiiirich 0 :z;aot     /, 


CONST  AN^^OPUE.^, 


SA  R  GOSSO"' 


_C.BJan£l 


C.VERDE  IS.       I      ,  w 


G   U 


Daldiel'.. 


,     A    T    0    R     .    A    L  C     „    «    «    ^    ^    ^ 


LoAngo 
Kabei 


Amltrlz' 
St.PauI  du  Loanda 


/ 


>A_ 


y^t.l/el«n4 


CAPE  TOWl 


^ett  SOUTHERN 


J' 


^"/A* 


AJ'RICA 


Jiaat   J^vnffitucle 


^T^ 


from 


25         GrtcMci^ 


^ 


TROPIC  OF  CAPRICORN 


30 


Berbera        ■*> 


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t:^^  If 


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ficoiiono  C.Amber^ 

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UAYOTTA  l-U         ,^;',.M;H 


(galas'.    -»r..i.y    ,  /pusi-S^ 

^-*     ■*  >, — u — • 


fDeUigoa  .  y 
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O 


ARIVO         f6.i^&, 
.aiiaiizari  heunion  i. 


FUJauphta 


4»=!*      fc^«.- 


Cape  0^  ^  *  '% 


AND  THE  ADJACENT  ISLANDS 

SCALE  OF  MILES 

100  900  lOOO 

lO'^Zatitude  =  1  Jnc?t       j 


£ast  ZcfRffitude  107      from    'Washvigton  122 


Zocal    Time  P. M'  uslien     6     Jfoon  on  the  3feriilian         7  of   'WiuMugton 


PHYSICAL  (iEOGRAPHY  OF  AFRICA. 


119 


AFRICA. 


V 


rsmaAL  tut  of  AnioA. 
The  Nile  valley  is  from  two  to 
ten  miles  wide ;  the  delta  is  about 
ninety  miles  in  its  greatest  extent 
from  south  to  north,  and  about 
eighty  miles  in  breailth  along  the 
Mediterranean  coast.     Owing  to 

the  annual  inundation  of  the  Nile,  ^__^ 

this  is  one  of  the  most  fertile  re-  -TvWPr^    -^^--^r^,^    ■^^»' 

VIEW   or  THE   NILE  AND  THE  PVRAMIDS. 

gions  on  the  globe. 

Note.  — The  inundations  of  the  Nile,  which  are  occasioned  by  the  i^riodical  rains 
in  the  Abyssinian  Mountains,  begin  about  the  middle  of  June,  attain  their  greatest 
height  in  September,  and  subside  about  the  end  of  October.  Before  its  subsidence, 
the  muddy  river-water  deposits  a  fertilizing  sediment,  lialf  an  inch  thick,  over  all 
the  land,  and  thus  annually  renews  the  productiveness  of  the  soil. 

4.  Agriculture  is  the  principal  occupation :  wheat,  barley,  maize, 
rice,  and  cotton  form  the  chief  crops ;  tobacco,  sugar,  and  indigo 
are  also  produced  to  a  considerable  extent. 

5.  The  conmierce  is  considerable,  for,  in  addition  to  the  products 
of  the  country,  large  quantities  of  gold-dust,  ivory,  and  ostrich- 
feathers  are  brought  by  caravan  from  the  interior  of  Africa.  The 
Suez  ship-canal  was  completed  in  1869,  and  has  proved  of  great 
commercial  importance. 

Note.  —  By  the  Suez  Canal  the  Atlantic  and  Indian  oceans  are  connected.  The 
total  length  of  the  canal,  from  Port  Said,  the  Mediterranean  terminus,  to  Suez,  on 
the  Red  Sea,  is  abont  one  hundred  miles.  Steamships  between  French  and  English 
porta  and  Bombay  pass  through  this  canal. 

6.  Population,  etc  —  The  population  (about  5,000,000)  is  a  great 
mixture  of  races,  —  Copts,  Arabs,  Turks,  Greeks,  etc. 

7.  Citiea.  —  CuRO  (350,000),  the  capital,  is  a  great  center  of  trade 

and  manufactures.     Alexandria  (175,000)  is  the  chief  seaport. 

HistorlcaL  —  Eg3T>t  is  a  coimtry  of  vast  antiquity,  and  the  Egyptians  are  the 
oldest  nation  of  which  we  have  a  recorded  history.  They  were  a  highly  civilized 
people  at  the  time  of  Abraham,  2,200  years  before  Christ.  The  ancient  kingdom  of 
Egypt  was  overthrown  by  Alexander,  and  it  remained  under  Greek  rulers  till  it  was 
subdued  by  the  Romans.  In  the  7th  century  A.  D.  it  fell  under  the  dominion  of  the 
Saracens.  The  whole  course  of  the  Nile  is  dotted  with  remains  of  ancient  monu- 
ments and  works  of  art,  such  as  pyramids,  temples,  obelisks,  palaces,  tombs,  etc.  The 
interiors  of  the  tombs  are  frescoed  in  the  most  beautiful  manner,  and  all  the  monu- 
ments are  ci  7cred  with  picture-writing  called  hieroglyphics. 


dent  states,  inhabits 
people,  numbering  1 
tianity,  but  are  iml 

3.  Industries.  —  i 
rinds,  coffee,  etc. ;  n 
tery ;  and  sell  to  thi 

4.  Places.  —  GoN: 
leading  state. 

Mas'suah,  on  th 
belongs  to  Egypt 


TE 

L  Divisions.  —  T 

ranean  countries  of 

Algeria,  Tunis,  and 

Morocco  and  Tunii 

Algeria  is  a  colonial 

Tripoli  is  a  tributary 

2.    Physical   Pea 

through  Morocco,  i 
to  the  Mediterraneq 
east  to  the  Great 
that  of  Spain  and 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

m^  To  draw  the  Hap  of  An-lca,  see  section  on  Map- 
Drawing,  pace  13'.). 

1.  Description.  —  Africa,  surrounded  on  all 
sides  by  the  ocean,  except  where  it  is  united 
to  Asia  by  the  Isthmus  of  Suez,  is  naturally 
a  great  southern  peninsula  of  the  Eastern 
Continent ;  but  the  art  of  man,  by  cutting  a 
canal  across  the  Isthmus  of  Suez,  has  ren- 
dered it  an  island-continent. 

2.  Position.  —  Africa  is  mainly  in  the  equa- 
torial region ;  it  occupies  the  entire  width 
of  the  Torrid  Zone,  —  its  northern  section 
extending  into  the  North  Temperate  Zone 
and  its  southern  section  into  the  South  Tem- 
perate Zone. 

Note.  —  Africa  extends  between  the  parallels  of  37° 
north  and  85°  south  latitude. 

3.  Outline.  —  It  has  few  projections  of  land 
or  inbreakiugs  of  the  sea,  and  is  the  most 
regular  of  aU  the  grand  divisions.  Its  figure 
resembles  that  of  an  iiTegular  triangle. 

4.  In  size  it  ranks  next  to  Asia  :  its  area  is 
three  times  as  great  as  that  of  Europe. 

6.  General  Surface.  —  The  surface  consists 
chiefly  of  a  great  plateau,  with  two  mountain 
regions,  the  one  in  the  northern,  the  other  in 
the  southern  section.  In  the  northern  section 
the  highlands  extend  east  and  west;  in  the 
southern  section,  north  and  soutL 

6.  The  mountains  of  Africa  are  :  (1)  the 
Atlas  range,  in  the  northwest ;  (2)  the  moun- 
tains of  Abyssinia ;  (3)  the  mountains  of  the 
Great  Lake  Region,  aroimd  the  sources  of  the 


MAP  STUDIES  ON  AFRICA 


Situation  and  Outline.  —  1.  What  sea  north  ?  —  east  t  2.  Wliat  ocean  west  ? 
—  east  ?  3.  Where  is  the  Isthmus  of  Suez  ?  4.  What  port  of  Africa  is  crossed  by 
the  Equator  ?    6.  What  is  the  latitude  of  Cape  Bon  t  —  of  Cape  Agulhas  [a-^iyai]  1 

6.  What  is  the  most  eastern  cape  ?  —  the  most  western  ?  7.  Where  is  the  Cajie  of 
Good  Hope  I  8.  What  great  inbreaking  of  the  ocean  on  the  west  coast  f  9.  What 
groups  of  islands  off  the  northwest  coast  ?  10.  What  large  island  off  the  southeast 
coast  ?    11.  Where  is  the  island  of  Zanzibar  ? 

Snifaofl.  —  L  Where  are  the  Atlas  Mountains  ?  2.  Which  coast  is  the  more 
mountainous,  the  eastern  or  the  western  ?  3.  Notice  on  the  Physical  Map  the  great 
highland  region  of  the  eastern  shore.  4.  In  what  mountains  do  the  eastern  branches 
of  the  Nile  take  their  rise  ?  5.  Name  two  peaks  in  the  range  east  of  the  great  ei|ua- 
torial  lakes.     6.  What  mountain-range  in  the  region  north  of  the  Gulf  of  Ouinrji  7 

7.  Notice  on  the  I'hysical  Map  the  Kong  Mountains.  8.  What  mountains  in  South 
Africa  ?    9.  Point  out  the  Sahara,  on  the  Physical  Map. 

Lakes  and  Rivers. — 1.  What  great  lakes  are  drained  by  the  Nile  T  2.  Where  is 


Lake  Tanganyika  [lan-gan-yt/ka\  f  —  Nyas'sa  I^ke  f  —  Lake  Tchad  [chad]  ?  3.  What 
branch  of  the  Nile  rises  in  the  lake  region  t  4.  What  branches  rise  in  the  Abys- 
sinian Mountains  !  5.  Through  how  many  degrees  of  latitude  does  the  Nile  flow  I 
6.  What  great  river  flows  into  the  Gulf  of  Guinea  ?  7.  What  is  the  chief  river  of 
Southeastern  Africa  ?  8.  Where  is  Orange  River  ?  —  the  Senegal'  f  —  the  Gambia  \ 
9.  Notice  on  the  Physical  Map  the  Nile,  Niger,  and  Zambe'si  rivers. 

Countries  and  Regiona.  —  1.  What  four  countries  in  the  region  of  the  Atlas 
Mountains  ?  2.  Locate  the  cities  of  Morocco,  Algiers',  Tu'nis,  Trip'oU.  3.  What 
divisions  occupy  the  Nile  Valley  ?  4.  Which  is  the  principal  seaport  ?  5.  Where  is 
Cairo  ?  —  Mas'suah  ?  6.  Where  is  Khartoom'  f  —  Gon'dar  ?  7.  Where  is  the  Oasis 
of  Fczzan'  ?  8.  Name  a  city  there.  9.  Name  a  city  in  the  Sahara.  10.  What  city 
near  I .ake  Tchad  ?  11.  What  countries  border  on  the  Gulf  of  Guinea  ?  12.  In  what 
country  is  Freetown? — Monrovia?  13.  What  country  in  Southern  Africa!  14. 
Where  is  Cape  Town  ?  15.  What  small  countries  northeast  ?  16.  Where  ia  the  city 
of  iSanzibor' !  —  Mozambiiiue'  I 


120 


AFRICA. 


Nile,  in  which  is  Kilimanjaro'  (20,000  feet  high),  the  loftiest  peak 
of  Africa ;  (4)  the  mountains  of  South  Africa,  terminating  in  Table 
Mountain,  in  Cape  Colony ;  (5)  the  Kong  Mountains,  along  the 
Guinea  coast. 

7.  Desert  —  The  great  feature  of  African  geography  is  the  im- 
mense Sahara,  or  desert,  in  the  northern  part ;  it  occupies  about 
one  fourth  of  the  total  surface. 

8.  Bivers.  —  The  African  rivers  are  few  in  number,  though  some 
of  them  are  noted  for  their  gi-eat  length.  The  most  important  are 
the  Nile,  Niger,  Congo,  Zambesi,  and  Orange,  i^-yi ^''^^'^""T' 


Names. 


irue. 


Niger. 


Congo. 


Zambesi, 


Orange. 


Length. 


4,000 


3,000 


1,600 


1,000 


Description. 


Rises  in  the  equatorial  lake 
region,  and  flows  nortli  into 
the  Mediterranean. 


Rises  in  the  Kong  Mountains  in 
"Western  Africa,  and  after  flow- 
ing nortliward  into  an  interior 
depression,  tunis  soutliward 
into  the  Gulf  of  Guinea. 

Rises  in  Equatori<al  Africa,  and  j  It  dischargn^ 


with  the  ToiTid  Zone,  extending  from  about  16°  north  to  about  20° 
south  latitude.  In  this  region  there  are  but  two  seasons,  —  the  wet 
and  the  dry.  During  the  former  it  rains  in  torrents  for  weeks  to- 
gether, and  the  country  becomes  flooded,  owing  to  the  overflow  of 
the  rivers ;  this  is  followed  by  the  dry  season,  in  which  all  but  the 
largest  rivers  become  empty  channels,  and  vegetation  is  burned  up 
by  the  excessive  and  long-continued  heat. 

The  region  of  scanty  rains  includes  the  land  north  of  16°  north 
latitude  and  south  of  20°  south  latitude. 


A  river  fam 

uity ;  rem! 
fiow,aiid  fi 
of  its  lowef 
tary. 
It  drains  th 
great  delta. 


flows  westward  into  tho  At- 
lantic. 

Rises  in  the  unexplored  region 
of  Africa,  and  flows  southeast 
into  the  Indian  Ocean. 

Rises  in  the  eastern  part  of 
Southern  Africa,  and  flows 
westward  into  the  Atlantic, 


unie  of  wa^  ^j 

of  the  Mi; 
Partly  explc; 

discovered: 

agara  of  A  i 
Drains  the 

in  the  rej 

ments,  is 

tance. 


li 


9.  Lakes.  —  In  the  equatorial  region  of  Afric 
which  in  size  rival,  if  they  do  not  surpass, 
North  America.     The  largest  of  these  are  la  i 
and  Tanganyika ;  they  have  all  become  know  J- 
and  no  one  of  them  is  yet  completely  explored 

Note.  —  In  1858  Lake  Tanganyika  was  discovered  by  B 
officers.  It  is  estimated  to  be  250  miles  in  length,  witli 
mUes.  Victoria  Lake,  or  Victoria  Nyanza  ("  Nyanza  "  sig 
in  1858,  and  subsequently  visited  by  him  and  Captain  Gra 
Lake  Tanganyika,  with  a  lofty  mountain-district  interven 
Baker  discovered  another  great  expanse  of  water  west  ol 
nected  with  it :  he  named  it  Albert  Nyanza,  that  is,  Lake 

Two  other  large  lakes  disconnected  with  the  equatorial  sys 
Lake  Nyassa,  both  discovered  by  the  explorer  Dr.  Livingst  -*>  '  * 
principal  lake  of  Central  Africa. 

10.  Climate :  Heat  —  Africa  is  the  hottest  of 
This  is  due  to  its  stretch- 
ing through  the  entire 
width  of  the  Torrid  Zone, 
to  its  vast  continuous  ex- 
tent from  east  to  west,  and 
to  its  immense  desert,  from 
the  arid  surface  of  which 
the  heat  of  the  sixn's  rays 
is  reflected  with  intense 
power. 

IL  Climate:  Uoistare. — 

As  regards  moisture  Africa 
comprises  two  regions, — 
the  region  of  tropical  rains 
and  the  region  of  scanty 
rains. 

The  region  of  the  tropi- 
cal rains  nearly  coincides 


PORT    SAID.   TERMINUS    OF    SUEZ    CANAL. 


C.Delgado/ 

Q COMORO 
•  cr  /■- 

Notii. 
tutes  Egypt  proper  ;  but  Egyp- 
tian rale  has  of  late  been  estab- 
lished over  an  extensive  region 
to  the  south,  officially  called 
Soiidan'.  It  comprises  Lower 
Nubia,  Sennaar',  Dong'ola,  Taka, 
Kordofan',  the  provinces  of  the 
White  Nile  and  Khartoom,  with 
the  region  southward  to  the 
Equator. 

2.   The  government  is  a 

monarchy ;  but  is  not  quite 
independent,  as  the  ruler, 
called  the  khedive  (that  is, 
viceroy),  must  pay  tribute 
to  the  Sultan  of  Turkey. 


ABYSSINIA  AND  THE  BAEBAEY  STATES. 


121 


'  -T.  «<','■ 


I.    EGYPT  PROPER. 

a  Physical  Feature*.  —  The 
river  Nile  is  the  most  striking 
physical  featrire  in  Egypt :  with- 
out this  beneficent  stream  the 
whole  country  would  be  a  hot  and 
arid  desert.  Neariy  aR  the  pro- 
ductive and  habitable  parta  an 
comprised  in  its  valley  and  delta 

The  Nile  valley  is  from  two  to 
ten  miles  wide ;  the  delta  is  about 
ninety  miles  in  its  greatest  extent 
from  south  to  nort.h,  and  about 
eighty  miles  in  breadth  along  the 
Mediterranean  coast.  Owing  to 
the  annual  inundation  of  the  Nile, 
this  is  one  of  the  most  fertile  re- 
gions on  the  globa 

Note.  —  The  inundations  of  the  Nile,  which  are  occasioned  by  the  periodical  rains 
in  the  Abyssinian  Mountains,  begin  about  the  middle  of  June,  attain  their  greatest 
height  in  September,  and  subside  about  tiie  end  of  October.  Before  its  subsidence, 
tlie  muddy  river-water  deposits  a  fertilizing  sediment,  half  an  inch  tliick,  over  all 
the  land,  and  thus  annually  renews  the  productiveness  of  the  soil. 

4.  Agriculture  is  the  principal  occupation :  wheat,  barley,  maize, 
rice,  and  cotton  form  the  chief  crops ;  tobacco,  sugar,  and  indigo 
are  also  produced  to  a  considerable  extent. 

5.  The  commerce  is  considerable,  for,  in  addition  to  the  products 
of  the  country,  large  quantities  of  gold-dust,  ivory,  and  ostrich- 
feathers  are  brought  by  caravan  from  the  interior  of  Africa.  The 
Suez  ship-canal  was  completed  in  1869,  and  has  proved  of  great 
commercial  importance. 

Note.  —  By  the  Suez  Canal  the  Atlantic  and  Indian  oceans  are  connected.  The 
total  length  of  the  canal,  from  Port  Said,  the  Mediterranean  terminus,  to  Suez,  on 
the  Red  Sea,  is  about  one  hundred  miles.  Steamships  between  French  and  English 
ports  and  Bombay  pass  through  this  canal. 

&  Population,  etc.  —  The  population  (about  5,000,000)  is  a  great 
mixture  of  races,  —  Copts,  Arabs,  Turks,  Greeks,  etc. 

7.  Cities  —  Cairo  (350,000),  the  capital,  is  a  great  center  of  trade 

and  manufactures.     Alexandria  (175,000)  is  the  chief  seaport. 

HistoiicaL — Egypt  is  a  country  of  vast  antiquity,  and  the  Egyptians  are  the 
oldest  nation  of  which  we  have  a  recorded  history.  They  were  a  highly  civilized 
people  at  the  time  of  Abraham,  2,200  years  before  Christ.  The  ancient  kingdom  of 
Egypt  was  overthrown  by  Alexander,  and  it  remained  under  Greek  rulers  till  it  was 
subdued  by  the  Romans.  In  the  7th  century  A.  D.  it  fell  under  the  dominion  of  the 
Saracens.  The  whole  course  of  the  Nile  is  dotted  with  remains  of  ancient  monu- 
ments and  works  of  art,  such  as  pyramids,  temples,  obelisks,  palaces,  tombs,  etc.  The 
interiors  of  the  tombs  are  frescoed  in  the  most  beautiful  manner,  and  all  the  monu- 
ments are  ci  /cred  with  picture-writing  called  hieroglyphics. 

II.    NUBIA  AND    KORDOFAN. 

8.  Description.  —  Except  ou  the  immediate  margin  of  the  Nile, 
the  northern  and  middle  parts  of  Nubia  consist  almost  entirely  of 
rocks  and  sand.  Towards  the  south  and  in  Kordofan'  the  soil  is 
fertile  and  the  vegetation  luxuriant. 

9.  Industries.  —  The  population  (about  2,000,000)  is  chiefly  en- 
gaged in  the  culture  of  dhourra,  barley,  tobacco,  indigo,  senna, 
and  coffee,  and  in  forwarding  to  !%ypt  skins  and  hides,  gum- 
arabic,  and  gold  and  sUver. 

10.  Oovemment,  etc.  —  Nubia  and  Kordofan  are  subject  to  Egypt, 
and  ruled  by  Egyptian  governors. 

Kliartoom  is  the  capital  and  center  of  trade  of  Nubia,  and  El 
Obeid  [o-bai/eed]  is  the  chief  place  of  Kordofan. 


VIEW   OF  THE   NILE  AND   THE  PYRAMIDS. 


ABYSSINIA. 

L  Physical  Featurea  —  Abys- 
sinia is  an  elevated  plateau,  ridged 
by  rugged  mountains,  between 
which  are  fertile  valleys  covered 
with  luxuriant  vegetation.  The 
low  coast  along  the  Eed  Sea  is 
intensely  hot,  but  the  highlands 
are  cooler. 

Abyssinia,  unlike  I^ypt,  has 
abundant  rains.  The  drainage 
of  nearly  the  whole  country  be- 
longs to  the  Nile. 

2.  Political  Divisioiis.  —  The 
coimtry,  for  a  long  time  subject 
to  a  single  ruler,  is  now  divided 
between  several  petty  indepen- 
dent states,  inhabited  by  warlike  and  semi-barbarous  tribes.  The 
people,  numbering  about  four  millions,  profess  a  sort  of  Chris- 
tianity, but  are  immoral  and  degraded. 

3.  Industries.  —  The  people  raise  various  grains,  and  dates,  tama- 
rinds, cofiee,  etc. ;  manufacture  coarse  cloth,  leather,  and  rude  pot- 
tery ;  and  sell  to  the  Egyptians  coffee,  ivory,  and  gums. 

4.  Places.  —  Gon'dar  is  the  principal  center  of  popidation  in  the 
leading  state. 

Mas'suah,  on  the  Eed  Sea,  the  chief  seaport  of  the  country, 
belongs  to  Egypt 


THE   BARBARY    STATES. 

L  Divisions.  —  The  Barbaiy  States  include  all  the  Mediter- 
ranean countries  of  Africa,  except  Egypt.  They  comprise  Morocco, 
Algeria,  Tunis,  and  Tripoli. 

Morocco  and  Tunis  are  independent  monarchies. 

Algeria  is  a  colonial  possession  of  France. 

Tripoli  is  a  tributary  country  of  Turkey.     It  includes  the  oasis  of  Fezzan'. 

2.  Physical  Features.  —  The  Atlas  Mountain  range  extends 
through  Morocco,  Algeria,  and  Tunis,  sloping  on  the  northwest 
to  the  Mediterranean  Sea  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  on  the  south- 
east to  the  Great  Desert.  The  climate  of  this  region  resembles 
that  of  Spain  and  Italy,  though  it  is  somewhat  warmer  and  drier. 

3.  Productiona  —  The  chief  productions  of  Northern  Africa  are 
dates  and  olives,  wheat,  corn,  millet,  and  barley. 

4.  Pursuits.  —  Agriculture  fonns  the  leading  occupation  ;  in  the 
liill  country  tlie  raising  of  sheep  and  goats  is  largely  followed. 
The  native  manufactures  include  silk  and  woolen  stuffs,  shawls, 
carpets,  fire-arms,  and  gunpowder. 

There  is  a  considerable  caravan  trade  with  Central  Africa  across 
the  Sahara.  The  traders  obtain  from  the  negro  countries  gold, 
gums,  ostrich-plumes,  elephant-tusks,  and  slaves,  in  exchange  for 
cloths  and  other  manufactured  articles. 

5.  The  population  of  the  BarUiry  States  includes  Berbers,  or 
Kabyles,  who  live  in  the  mountains,  and  are  supposed  to  be  the 
descendants  of  the  aborigines ;  Moors,  wlio  occupy  the  cities,  and 
are  engaged  in  trade  and  rude  manufactures ;   and  Arabs,  who 


122 


AFKICA. 


French  colo- 


dwell  in  tents,  and  lead  a  wandering  pastoral  life, 
nists  are  numerous  in  Algeria. 

6.  Cities.  —  The  leading  cities  are  Morocco  and  Fez,  the  capi- 
tals of  Morocco  and  its  chief  commercial  centers ;  Algiers,  the 
capital  of  Algeria ;  and  Tunis  and  Tripoli,  respectively  the  lead- 
ing cities  of  the  states  of  the  same  names. 


<  *■  ^  > 


THE    SAHARA. 


CR0S81N0   THE   QREAT    DESERT, 


L  Description.  —  The 
Sahara,  or  Great  Desert, 
is  a  parched,  sandy,  and 
desolate  waste,  occupy- 
ing one  fourth  of  the 
surface  of  Africa,  or  an 
area  equal  to  about  two 
thirds  that  of  Europe.  The  only  habitable  parts  are  the  oases : 
fertile  spots  covered  with  date-palms,  which  offer  their  grateful 
shade,  refreshing  water,  and  sweet  fruit  to  the  weary  caravans. 

2.  The  inhabitants  probably  do  not  number  over  100,000  souls. 
They  comprise  several  tribes,  —  Moors,  Tuaregs,  and  Teboos,  — 
wanderers  who  feed  their  flocks  and  herds  on  the  scanty  herbage 
as  they  pass  from  oasis  to  oasis,  and  who  subsist  on  the  milk  of 
their  camels,  on  dates  from  the  oases,  and  on  what  they  can  plun- 
der from  the  caravans. 

3.  Commerce.  —  The  only  commercial  products  of  this  desolate 
region  are  ostrich-feathers,  gums,  and  salt. 

4.  ■  Caravans.  —  Numerous  caravans,  sometimes  consisting  of 
thousands  of  camels,  cross  the  desert  by  various  routes  from  the 
Barbary  States  to  Central  Africa,  occupying  from  thirty  to  ninety 
days  in  the  journey. 

It  would  be  utterly  impossible  for  man  to  traverse  the  Sahara 
without  the  aid  of  the  camel,  which  is  the  only  animal  that  can 
eat  the  coarse  herbage  growing  in  the  desert,  and  the  only  animal 
that,  without  water,  can  pass  long  periods  of  time  on  the  burning 
sands. 


SOUDAN. 


L    Extent  —  Soudan    (i.  e.    Belad-es-Soodan,   or   Land   of  the 
Blacks)  is  the  name  applied  to  the  vast,  indefinite,  and  imperfectly 


explored  region  of  Central  Africa,  extending  between  the  Sahara 
on  the  north  and  the  equatorial  region  on  the  south,  —  an  area 
probably  as  great  as  that  of  the  United  States. 

2.  Physical  Featsres.  —  This  region  consists  of  extensive  plains, 
which,  owing  to  the  copious  rains,  is  covered  with  luxuriant  vege- 
tation. It  includes  the  basin  of  Lake  Tchad  and  the  chief  part  of 
the  river  Niger.     Its  climate  is  tropical,  but  not  unhealthfuL 

3.  The  population  of  Central  Africa  numbers  many  millions,  and 
is  divided  between  the  races  of  pure  negro  blood  and  the  FeUatahs. 

4.  The  Fellatahs  are  a  mixed  race,  partly  of  negro  and  partly 
of  Berber  descent.  They  are  Mohammedans  in  religion,  and  supe- 
rior to  the  negroes  in  the  scale  of  civilization. 

6.  The  negro  tribes  live  in  villages,  and  cultivate  the  soil  in 
a  rude  manner;  they  make  iron  weapons  and  implements;  they 
weave  and  dye  cotton  cloth,  and  manufacture  mats  and  other  arti- 
cles of  household  use.  The  women  do  most  of  the  work,  while 
fighting,  hunting,  and  fishing  are  the  principal  occupations  of  the 
men.  The  negroes  have  no  written  language,  no  books,  and  no 
schools;  hence  they  are  ignorant  and  superstitious. 

6.  The  commercial  productions  are  gold-dust,  ivory,  and  ostrich- 
feathers.  The  slave-trade  is  carried  on ;  the  merchants  engaged  in 
it  are  principally  Moors,  who  form  caravans  for  the  purpose  of 
crossing  the  Desert. 

7.  Trading  points  of  note  in  Soudan  are  :  Yakoba  (said  to  have  a 
population  of  150,000),  Sokotoo,  Kano,  Timbuktoo,  and  Kuka. 


COUNTRIES  OF  THE  WESTERN   COAST. 

L  Extent  —  "Western  Africa  extends  along  the  coast  of  the  At- 
lantic from  the  border  of  the  Desert  southward  to  the  latitude  of 
Cape  Frio,  —  a  range  of  between  3,000  and  4,000  miles. 

2.  Physical  Features.  —  Inland  from  the  belt  of  low  sandy  coast 
are  found  fertile  alluvial  bottoms,  and  to  the  east  of  these  wooded 
or  grassy  table-lands. 

The  greater  part  of  the  country  is  covered  by  immense  forests 
with  dense  underwood,  which  afford  shelter  to  innumerable  wild 
animals,  formidable  reptiles,  and  myriads  of  destructive  insects. 
The  more  remarkable  trees  are  the  baobab,  gum-acacias,  and  oU- 
palms.     The  climate  is  tropical 

3.  People  and  Industry.  • —  The  inhabitants  are  almost  entirely 
negroes,  resembling  the  natives  of  Central  Africa.  They  live  in 
villages  composed  of  mud  huts,  cultivate  the  soil,  plant  gardens 
of  fruit-trees,  possess  cows,  sheep,  goats,  and  poultry  in  con- 
siderable numbers,  and  manufacture  cotton  cloth,  earthenware, 
leather,  and  metal  goods.  They  are  very  ignorant,  cruel,  and 
superstitious,  and  frequently  engage  in  wars  for  the  purpose  of 
making  prisoners,  who  are  sold  as  slaves.  European  vessels  visit 
the  coast,  and  supply  the  people  with  gunpowder,  arms,  cotton 
cloth,  spirits,  cutlery,  beads,  etc.,  receiving  in  exchange  pabn-oil, 
wax,  gums,  feathers,  ivory,  etc. 

4.  Divisions.  —  Western  Africa  is  divided,  north  of  the  Equator, 
into  Senegambia,  Sierra  Leone,  Liberia,  and  Guinea ;  south  of  that 
line,  into  Loango,  Congo,  Angola,  and  Benguela. 

Senegambia  is  the  region  watered  by  the  rivers  Senegal  and  Gambia.  England, 
France,  and  Portugal  have  trading  stations  along  the  coast. 

Sierra  Leone  is  a  settlement  established  by  the  British  as  a  refuge  for  liberated 
slaves.     Freetown  is  the  chief  place. 


EAST  AND    SOUTH   AFRICA. 


123 


Uberia,  originally  founded  for  the  free  negroes  and  emancipated  slaves  of  the 
United  States  (daring  the  time  when  slavery  existed  in  our  country),  was  made  an 
indeiiendent  negro  republic  in  1848.     The  capital  is  Monrovia. 

Ooinea  extends  along  the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  and  includes  the  native 
kingdom  of  Ashantee,  chief  town  Cumasne ;  Dahomey,  chief  town  Abomey ;  and 
Yorilia,  chief  town  AlAeotinUa. 

Loango,  Congo,  Angola,  and  Bengtiela  are  extensive  but  little  known  coun- 
tries, iiilittbited  by  various  negro  tribes,  more  degraded  than  those  north  of  the  Equa- 
tor.    The  idave-trade  still  flourishes  along  the  coast 


EAST   AND   SOUTH   AFRICA. 

L  East  Africa  comprises  all  the  countries  and  regions  on  the 
eastern  side  of  the  continent  from  the  Gulf  of  Aden  to  Delagoa 
Bay,  and  from  the  Indian  Ocean  to  the  Great  Lake  region. 

2.  Surface.  —  In  general  it  forms  a  moderately  elevated  plateau, 
studded  with  several  magnificent  lakes,  and  Iwunded,  coastwise,  by 
mountain-ranges,  the  highest  summit  of  which  is  Kilimanjaro.  The 
longest  rivers  are  the  Zambezi  and  the  head-stream  of  the  Nile, 
which  passes  through  lakes  Victoria  and  Albert 

3.  Divisions.  —  This  region  is  divided  into  three  territories :  the 
Somali  territory,  Zanquebar,  and  the  Portuguese  possessions. 

The  Somali  are  tribes  of  native  herdsmen.  The  chief  place  in  their  country  is 
Bertera,  on  the  Gulf  of  Aden.  A  great  fair  is  held  there  annually,  at  which  are 
assembled  Egyptians,  Nubians,  Abyssinians,  Arabs,  Persians,  all  bringing  the  prod- 
ucts and  merchandise  of  their  respective  countries,  and  exchanging  them  for  ivory, 
gums,  myrrh,  and  coffee. 

Zanzibar.  —  This  region,  stretching  from  the  Equator  southward  to  Cape  Del- 
gado,  forms  a  separate  sovereignty  under  Arab  rule.  It  exports  considerable  quan- 
tities of  rice,  sugar,  molasses  and  AsIl     Zanzibar  (80,000)  is  the  principal  place. 

The  Portuguese  Possessions  reach  from  Cape  Delgado  to  Delagoa  Bay,  and 
include  the  territories  of  Mozambiiiue  and  Sofala.  The  native  Blacks  are  in  a 
wretched  condition.  The  slave-trade,  though  condemned  by  the  Portuguese  gov- 
ernment, is  vigorously  carried  on  by  its  servants.  The  city  of  Mozambique  is  the 
center  of  Portngnrae  power. 

4.  South  Africa  is  the  seat  of  three  British  colonies  and  of  two 
small  Dutch  republics. 

6.  Prodneta.  —  Most  of  the  products  of  Southern  Europe  can  be 


PORT    NATAL. 


grown  in  the  valleys  and  along  the  coast,  but  raising  cattle  and 
sheep  is  the  principal  pursuit  of  the  white  settlers. 
6.   The  political  divisions  of  South  Africa  are:  — 


Divixiona 

Characteristics. 

Cap«  Colony. 

Katal. 

Orange  Free  State.  ~1 

Transvaal  RepublicJ 

Oriqua-Land. 

Is  the  largest  of  the  British  possessions  iu  South  AMca.  Cape  Town 
is  the  capital.  The  native  inhabitants  are  Hottentots,  Kaffirs,  and 
Bushmen. 

Is  the  otiier  British  colony.    Tlie  native  population  arc  called  Zulus. 

These  are  Dutch  settlements  that  rank  as  independent  states. 

Is  a  small  British  colonial  settlement,  which  includes  the  rich  dia- 
mond-district of  South  Africa. 

ISLANDS. 

L  Madagascar,  the  largest  island  of  Africa,  has  great  natural  re- 
sources. The  ruling  people  are  of  Malay  stock.  They  have  long 
practiced  such  arts  as  smelting,  weaving,  and  rope-making ;  they 
are  skillful  in  the  manufacture  of  jewelry,  carpets,  and  cutlasses. 

2.  Maoritias,  a  small  volcanic  island  east  of  Madagascar,  belongs 
to  Great  Britain.     Reunion  Island  belongs  to  France. 

3.  St  Helena,  twelve  hundred  miles  distant  from  the  African 
coast,  is  a  small  island,  noted  as  the  place  of  the  banishment  and 
death  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte. 


TOPICAL  REVIEW  OF  AFRICA. 


Names. 

Popolation. 

Capitals. 

Largest  Cities  and  Popniatlon. 

Form  of  Oovenunent,  etc. 

^gJV^ 

5,500,000 

Cairo. 

Cairo  (350,000). 

Monarchy,  partly  subject  to  Turkey.    Ruler  styled  the  Khedive 
of  Egypt. 

Knbia. 

2,000,000 

Khartoom. 

Khartoom  (50,000). 

Ruled  by  an  Egyptian  governor. 

Abyssinia. 

3,000,000 

Gondar  (7,000). 

Various  chiefs  of  tribes  or  petty  kings. 

Korooco. 

6,000,000 

Morocco  and  Fez. 

Fez  (100,000). 

Absolute  monarchy.     Ruler  called  Emperor. 

Algeria. 

3,000,000 

Algiers. 

Algiers  (55,000). 

Colonial  dependency  of  France.     Govemor-GeneraL 

Tonii. 

2,100,000 

Tunis. 

Tunis  (130,000). 

Monarchy. 

TripoU. 

2,000,000 

TriiK)li. 

Tripoli  (30,000). 

Turkish  tributary  state.     Ruled  by  a  Pasha. 

The  Sahara. 

100,000 

Agades  (7,000). 

Tribal  government,  nnder  Sheika. 

Sondan  and  Equatorial  AMoa. 

80,000,000 

Yakoba  (150,000). 

Tribal  government,  under  Sheiks. 

Senegambia. 

Native  tribes,  and  European  trading-stations. 

Sierra  Leone. 

Freetown. 

Freetown  (20,000). 

Colonial  dependency  of  England. 

Uberia. 

800,000 

Monrovia. 

Monrovia  (3,000). 

Republic,  under  a  President 

Guinea  Coast. 

St  Paul  de  Loanda  (20,000^ 

Colonial  dependency  of  Portugal,  and  negro  kingdoms. 

Cape  Colony  and  Natal. 

500,000 

Capetown. 

Cape  Town  (35,000). 

Colonial  dependency  of  England.     Governor-General. 

Orange  Free  State.                   1 
Transvaal  Bepablic. 

67,000 

Kloemfontein. 

Bloemfontein  (2,500). 

^ 

280,000 

Pretoria. 

Pretoria  (4,500). 

Small  independent  republics. 

Kadagasear. 

2,500,000 

Tananarive. 

Tananarive  (80,000). 

Kingdom. 

Zanqnebar. 

800,000 

Zanzibar. 

Zanzibar  80,000). 

Sultanate.     Chief  ruler  called  Sultan. 

AUSTRALASIA. 


125 


AUSTRALASIA. 

Australasia  comprises  the  continental  island  of  Australia  and 
the  large  islands  of  New  Guinea,  New  Zealand,  Tasmania  (or  Van 
Diemen  Land),  together  with  many  small  islands  and  groups  of 
islands  adjacent  to  Australia. 

AUSTRALIA. 

L  Size.  —  Australia,  the  greatest  of  islands,  is  two  thirds  as  large 
as  the  United  States.  Its  extreme  length  is  2,500  miles,  and  its 
extreme  width  1,900  miles.  It  has  a  coast-line  but  little  indented 
by  the  ocean. 

2.  Surface.  —  The  interior,  which  has  been  only  imperfectly  ex- 
plored, is  a  vast  plain  or  slightly  elevated  plateau.  Along  the  east- 
em  shore  extends  a  mountain  system,  with  an  elevation  about  the 
same  as  that  of  the  Appalachian  system  in  the  United  States.  This 
constitutes  the  principal  highland  region.  A  secondary  highland 
extends  along  the  western  coast 

3.  Rivers. —  The  only  important  river  system  is  that  of  the  Mur- 
ray. This  stream  with  its  affluents,  the  Lachlan  and  the  Darling, 
drains  the  eastern  or  greater  highland. 

4.  Climate.  —  The  northern  half  is  in  the  Torrid  Zone,  and  has 
a  tropical  climate.     The  southern  section  has  a  climate  similar  to 


that  of  the  Mediterranean  countries  of  Europe.  As  Australia  is 
situated  in  the  southern  hemisphere,  the  seasons  are  the  opposite 
of  ours:  thus,  it  is  hottest  at  Christmas  and  coldest  in  our  midsum- 
mer ;  the  Australian  farmer  sows  his  seed  when  we  are  gathering 
our  harvests,  and  the  reverse. 

5.  Vegetation. — The  forest  vegetation  is  peculiar,  the  native  trees 
being  evergreens,  and  some  shedding  their  bark  instead  of  their 
leaves  :  acacias,  gum-trees  (the  eucalypti),  and  gigantic  tree-ferns 
are  the  chief  forest-trees. 

6.  AniTnals.  —  The  wild  animals  are  quite  as  peculiar  as  the 
vegetation.  The  largest  is  the  kangaroo,  which  is  a  pouched  ani- 
mal. A  very  remarkable  animal  is  the  ornithorhynchus ;  it  ia  a 
water  animal,  shaped  like  a  beaver,  has  web  feet,  and  a  bill  like  that 
of  a  duck. 

7.  Natives.  —  The  aborigines  of  Australia  are  of  a  distinct  race 
from  that  inhabiting  the  Indian  Archipelago  or  the  islands  of  Poly- 
nesia, and  are  called  Papuan-negroes.  They  are  black,  with  curly 
hair,  and  are  very  low  in  the  scale  of  civilization.  They  do  not 
exceed  50,000  in  number,  and  are  fast  dying  out. 

Hlatory.  —  Australia  was  discovered  by  the  Dutch  in  1606,  and  was  named  Now 
Holland.  In  1788  tlio  English  founded  a  convict  settlement  in  New  South  Wales, 
but  in  1 837  transportation  to  New  South  Wales  was  abolished.  Gold  was  discovered 
in  1851,  after  which  time  the  country  was  rapidly  settled  by  emigrants  from  the 
British  Isles  and  other  jMrts  of  the  world. 

8.  Divisions.  —  Australia  is  a  British  possession,  and  is  divided 


MAP    STUDIES    ON    AUSTRALASIA   AND    POLYNESIA. 

Australasia.  —  1.  In  what  hemisphere  is  Australia  ?  2.  What  tropic  crosses  it 
near  the  middle  ?  3.  By  what  waters  is  it  surrounded  ?  4.  What  gulf  in  the  north- 
em  part  ?  5.  What  great  inbreaking  of  the  sea  in  the  southern  part  ?  6.  Where  is 
Cape  York  ?  —  Northwest  Capo  ?  7.  What  parts  are  mountainous  ?  8.  What  are 
the  principal  branches  of  the  Murray  River  ?  9.  Is  Australia  well  supplied  with 
rivers  ?  10.  State  the  location  of  the  following  colonies  :  Victoria  ;  —  New  South 
Wales  ;  —  South  Australia.     11.  Where  is  Melbourne  ?  —  Sydney  ?  —  Adelaide  ? 

1.  What  large  island  north  of  Aostralia  T  2.  What  strait  between  the  two  ? 
3.  Measure  by  the  scale  of  miles  the  length  of  New  Guinea.    4.  In  what  zone  is  it ! 


5.  What  island  soutli  of  Australia  f  6.  What  is  its  principal  city  I  7.  What  two 
islands  1,200  miles  east  of  Southern  Australia  ?  8.  What  is  the  name  of  the  British 
colony  occupying  these  two  islands  t  9.  In  what  zone  is  it  f  10.  What  is  the  capital  ? 
11.  AVlicre  are  Solomon  Islands  ?  —  New  Hebrides  I     12.  Where  is  New  C^aledonia  ? 

Polynesia.— 1.  What  group  of  islands  near  160°  W.  Longitude?  2.  What 
tropic  north  ?  3.  Measure  the  distance  from  the  Sandmch  Islands  to  San  Fran- 
cisco. 4.  What  is  the  capital  ?  5.  On  what  island  is  it  ?  6.  On  what  island  is  the 
volcano  of  Mauna  Loa  f  7.  Where  is  the  Man|uesas  [mar-kaiymii]  gi-oup  ?  8.  In  what 
group  is  the  island  of  Tahiti  [ta-hi'ty]  ?  9.  What  city  on  this  isliuid  ?  10.  What 
two  groui)8  east  of  the  Feejee  Islands  ?    11.  What  group  north  of  Friendly  Islands  ? 


126 


AUSTEALASIA  AND   POLYNESIA. 


into  five  provinces  or  colonies,  namely :  1.  Victoria.    2.  New  South 
Wales.     3.  Queensland.     4.  South  Australia.     5.  West  Australia. 

9.  The  government  in  each  colony  consists  of  a  governor  appointed 
in  England,  a  legislative  council,  and  a  legislative  assembly  elected 
by  the  people. 

10.  Besources.  —  Its  rich  mines  of  gold,  copper,  iron,  and  coal, 
and  its  great  extent  of  agricultural  and  grazing  lands,  constitute  the 
natural  wealth  of  Australia. 

IL  The  leading  industries  are  mining,  agriculture,  and  stock- 
raising. 

Mining.  —  Australia  ranks  as  one  of  the  greatest  of  gold-mining  countries.  Its 
copi)er  deposits  are  tlie  richest  in  the  world. 

Stock-raising.  —  The  vast  plains  of  Australia  make  fine  "sheep-ranges";  and 
sheep  have  multiplied  so  rapidly  that  Australia  is  now  the  greatest  wool-producing 
country  in  the  world.  Immense  herds  of  cattle  also  roam  over  the  plains ;  and  liides, 
horns,  tallow,  and  preserved  beef  are  exported  to  England  in  great  quantities. 

12.  Commerce.  —  Axistralia  being  a  colony  of  Great  Britain,  its 
trade  is  mostly  carried  on  with  the  mother-country.  It  exports 
wool,  gold,  copper,  hides,  tallow,  and  preserved  meats,  and  receives 
in  exchange  the  cotton  and  woolen  goods,  iron,  and  hardware  of 
England. 

13.  Civilization.  ■ —  The  colonies  of  Australia  are  among  the  most 
flourishing  and  prosperous  of  the  British  possessions,  and  in  civili- 
zation rank  with  the  foremost  nations.  Great  attention  is  paid  to 
education,  and  Sydney  and  Melbourne  have  universities. 

14.  Cities.  —  Melbourne  (280,000),  the  capital  of  Victoria,  is  the 
great  commercial  and  monetary  center  of  Australia.  Sydney,  in 
New  South  Wales,  is  the  second  city  in  importance.  Adelaide, 
the  chief  city  of  South  Australia,  is  largely  engaged  in  manufac- 
turing and  trade.  Brisbane  is  the  chief  city  of  Queensland. 
Perth  is  the  chief  city  of  West  Australia. 


NEW   GUINEA,    TASMANIA,    NEW   ZEALAND, 
AND    SMALLER   ISLANDS. 

I.  NEW    GUINEA. 

L  Size.  —  New  Guinea,  next  to  Australia  the  largest  of  the 
Australasian  Islands, Is  in  area  the  second  island  on  the  globe, 
Borneo  ranking  as  the  third. 

2.  Vegetation.  —  The  vegetation  of  this  island  resembles  that  of 
the  East  India  Islands  more  than  that  of  Australia.  Many  kinds 
of  palm-trees  grow  luxuriantly,  and  the  coasts  are  covered  with  a 
thick  jungle  of  matted  vegetation. 

3.  People.  —  There  are  a  few  white  settlements  on  the  coast,  but 
the  greater  part  of  the  inhabitants  belong  to  the  Papuan-negro  race, 
and  are  chiefly  engaged  in  fishing. 

II.  TASMANIA. 

4  Description.  —  Tasmania  (or  Van  Diemen  Land)  lies  south  of 
Australia,  which  it  resembles  in  its  vegetation  and  animals.  It  is 
a  British  colony. 

5.  Population.  —  The  first  white  inhabitants  were  convicts  trans- 
ported from  England,  and  a  considerable  part  of  the  population 
are  of  convict  descent.  But  this  island  has  now  ceased  to  be  a 
penal  settlement,  greatly  to  the  welfare  of  the  colony. 

6.  Industries.  —  The  people  are  engaged  principally  in  agricul- 
ture, sheep-raising,  and  the  whale-fishery. 

7.  The  capital  and  chief  place  is  Hobart  Town. 


III.  NEW    ZEALAND. 

8.  Situation,  etc.  —  New  Zealand  comprises  two  islands,  situated 
1,200  miles  east  of  Australia.     It  is  larger  than  Great  Britain. 

9.  In  government  it  is  a  separate  British  colony. 

10.  Characteristics.  —  These  islands  have  a  temperate  climate,  fer- 
tile soil,  luxuriant  vegetation,  and  great  mineral  wealth. 

11.  Occupations.  —  Agriculture,  pasturage,  mining,  and  commerce 
are  actively  carried  on. 

12.  Inhabitants.  —  The  native  inhabitants  of  New  Zealand  belong 
to  the  Malay  race  and  are  known  as  Maories.  They  possess  many 
qualities  superior  to  those  of  savage  nations  in  general.  They  are, 
however,  rapidly  declining  before  the  white  colonists,  with  whom 
tliey  are  at  intervals  engaged  in  fierce  wars.  The  white  popula- 
tion numbers  over  400,000. 

13.  The  capital  and  chief  place  is  Wellington. 

IV.  SMALLER    ISLANDS. 

14  Names.  —  Of  the  smaller  Australasian  islands  or  groups,  the 
principal  are  the  islands  of  New  Britain  and  New  Ireland,  the 
groups  of  the  Solomon,  New  Hebrides,  and  Loyalty  Islands,  and 
the  island  of  New  Caledonia. 

15.  Description. — These  islands  are  in  general  highly  productive, 
yielding  in  abundance  tropical  food-plants  and  valuable  timber- 
trees.  The  native  inhabitants  of  all  these  islands  belong  to  the 
Papuan-negro  race. 


POLYNESIA. 

GENERAL    SKETCH. 

1.  Polynesia,  meaning  "many  islands,"   is  the  name  given  to 

the  numerous  small  islands  and  groups  of  islands  in  the  Pacific 

Ocean  not  included  in  Australasia  or  Malaysia. 

Note.  —  For  the  botmdaries  of  Polynesia,  see  Map,  page  124.  The  greater  num- 
ber of  the  Polynesian  isles  are  included  within  twelve  groups,  or  clusters.  Four  of 
these  clustei's  —  the  Sandwich  Islands,  Marshall  Islands,  Caroline  Islands,  and 
Ladrones  —  lie  north  of  the  Equator.  The  eight  lying  south  of  the  Equator  are  the 
Feejee,  the  Friendly,  the  Navigator,  the  Cook,  the  Austral,  the  Society  Islands,  with 
the  Low  Archipelago,  and  the  Marquesas  Islands. 

2.  Physical  Formation.  —  The  Polynesian  Islands  are  naturally 
divided  into  two  classes,  —  the  mountainous  islands,  which  are 
mostly  of  volcanic  origin,  and  the  coral  islands. 

The  Sandwich  Islands,  the  Ladrones,  the  Society  Islands,  and 
the  Marquesas,  with  some  others,  belong  to  the  volcanic,  moun- 
tainous class;  the  rest  of  the  islands,  very  numerous  but  very 
small,  belong  to  the  class  of  coral  islands. 

3.  The  coral  islands  are  generally  of  circular  or  semicircular  form, 
consisting  mostly  of  a  low  belt  or  reef  which  encloses  a  lagoon  con- 
nected with  the  ocean  by  an  opening :  islands  of  this  description 
are  called  atolls.    Most  of  the  volcanic  islands  are  surrounded  by 


AN    ATOLL. 


POLYNESIA. 


127 


SOCNE    IN    POLYNESIA. 


coral  reefs  at  some  distance  from  the  island,  called  harrier-reefs. 
These  reefs  render  navigation  difficult  and  dangerous. 

Note.  —  The  coral  reels  are  pnxluced  by  the  lime  secretions  of  myriads  of  little 
polyps,  that  cannot  exist  at  a  greater  depth  than  two  hundred  feet,  and  that  cannot 
live  above  the  surface.  The  polyp  belongs  to  the  lowest  order  of  animal  life.  It 
consists  of  a  little  oblong  sack  of  jelly,  closetl  at  one  end,  but  open  at  the  other,  and 
surrounded  by  feelers  or  tentaides  set  like  the  rays  of  a  star.  Multitudes  of  these 
little  sacks  secrete  lime  which  forms  the  strong  skeleton  called  coral.  The  pores  in 
a  piece  of  coral  were  the  homes  of  the  living  polyps,  when  they  were  in  the  ocean. 
Countless  millions  of  these  polyps,  beginning  at  Xkko  depth  of  one  liuiidn'd  or  two 
hundred  feet,  on  some  sunken  mountain  or  submarine  plateau,  gradually  build  up  to 
the  surface,  and  then  widen  out  their  limestone  wall.  Next  the  sea  begins  to  throw 
np  broken  pieces  of  coral,  shells,  and  drift-wood.  A  little  soil  accumulates,  seeds 
are  drifted  upon  it,  and  vegetation  springs  up.  Binls  and  insects  make  it  their 
home,  and  when  the  cocoa-nut  grows  on  the  narrow  belt  of  soil  that  encircles  the 
lagoon,  man  comes  in  his  canoes  and  builds  his  huts  upon  it. 

4.  Products.  —  These  islands  combine  the  three  things  requisite 
for  luxuriant  vegetation,  namely,  heat,  moisture,  and  a  fertile  soil. 
The  principal  indigenous  food-plants  are  the  bread-fruit,  yam,  sweet- 
potato,  taro-root,  arrow-root,  banana,  plantain,  and  cocoa-nut.  Cof- 
fee, sugar,  cotton,  rice,  and,  in  fact,  most  of  the  fruits  and  grains  of 
the  tropical  and  temperate  zones  of  Asia,  have  been  introduced 
into  these  islands. 

6.  Hative  Races.  —  The  native  races  by  which  the  larger  part  of 
Polynesia  is  inhabited  are  altogether  different  from  the  Papuan 
negroes  of  Australia.  They  belong  for  the  most  part  to  the  Malay 
(or  brown)  type  of  mankind. 

These  South  Sea  Islanders,  as  they  are  called,  are  seafaring  peo- 
ple, and  display  great  skill  and  boldness  in  the  management  of 
their  canoes. 

Their  natural  intelligence  shows  them  to  bo  capable  of  a  high 
degree  of  civilization ;  but  they  have  been  rapidly  dying  out  since 
they  came  in  contact  with  the  white  race.  The  whole  population 
of  all  the  Polynesian  Islands  does  not  exceed  haK  a  millioa 

t   mmm    > 


ISLAND   GROUPS  IN   DETAIL. 

SANDWICH    ISLANDS. 

L  Sitntition.  —  The  Sandwich  Islands,  the  most  important  group, 
are  situated  just  a  little  south  of  the  Tropic  of  Cancer,  between 
150°  and  160°  west  longitude.  The  largest  island  is  Hawaii 
which  is  about  the  size  of  Connecticut. 

2,  Oorenuaent  and  People.  —  These  islands  form  an  independent 


nation  governed  by  a  king  or  queea  The  entire  population  of  the 
kingdom  does  not  exceed  seventy  thousand.  Most  of  the  Sandwich- 
Islanders  profess  Christianity,  and  are  partly  civilized. 

3.  The  principal  exports  of  the  Sandwich  Islands  are  sugar, 
molasses,  rice,  cocoa-nut  oil,  cocoa-nuts,  and  oranges. 

4.  HoNOLU'LU  (12,000),  the  capital  and  principal  seaport,  is  a 

famous  resort  for  the  whaling  vessels  of  the  North  Pacifia 

Hawaii  is  noted  for  its  great  volcanic  peak,  Mauna  Loa,  thirteen  thousand  feet 
high.  Kilau'ea,  a  lower  lateral  crater  of  Mauna  Loa,  half-way  up  tlie  mountain-side, 
is  nine  miles  in  circumference,  and  is  sometimes  filled  with  a  fiery  lake  of  red-hot 
lava.  After  filling  np  to  the  brim,  the  lava  frcijuently  breaks  out,  and  flows  in  a 
glowing  river  down  the  mountain  slope  to  the  ocean,  a  distance  of  forty  miles. 

OTHER   CROUPS. 

5.  The  Caroline  Group  embraces  a  great  number  of  small  coral 
islets,  situated  near  the  Equator,  in  the  Eastern  Hemisphere,  north 
of  New  Guinea.  The  natives  of  these  islands  make  long  voyages 
in  their  canoes,  which  they  manage  with  great  skill 

6.  The  Ladrones,  north  of  the  Carolines,  are  a  volcanic  group. 
The  larger  islands  are  inhabited  by  Spanish  colonists,  who  have 
exterminated  the  native  islanders. 

7.  The  Marquesas  Islands  are  French  possessions.  They  contain 
about  20,000  native  inhabitants,  who  are  tall  and  robust,  but  very 
savage,  and  who  practice  cannibalism. 

8.  The  Society  Islands  contain  a  population  of  about  20,000,  the 
majority  of  whom  have  been  converted  to  Christianity.  The  island 
of  Tahiti  is  under  French  rule.  The  various  foreigners  settled  in 
these  islands  carry  on  some  commerce,  consisting  chiefly  in  the 
export  of  pearl-shells,  sugar,  cocoa-nut  oil,  and  arrow-root 

9.  The  Friendly  Islands,  so  named  by  Captain  Cook  on  account 
of  the  hospitable  reception  given  to  him  by  their  inhabitants,  are 
peopled  by  from  20,000  to  30,000  natives,  most  of  whom  have 
been  converted  by  the  missionaries.  The  islands  are  occasionally 
visited  for  commercial  purposes,  chiefly  for  the  sake  of  cocoa-nuts, 
which  are  particularly  abundant 

10.  The  Feejee  Oroup  comprises  over  300  islands,  of  which  about 
one  half  are  inhabited.  These  islands  are  under  British  rule.  The 
number  of  islanders  is  estimated  at  200,000. 

The  Feejeeans  ai-e  among  the  most  warlike  and  most  skillful  of 
the  Polynesians.  All  of  them  were  formerly  ferocioas  cannibals, 
but  through  the  influence  of  the  missionaries  many  have  now  given 
up  the  practice  of  eating  human  flesL 


128 


GENERAL  EEVIEW  OF  THE  WOELD. 


GENERAL   REVIEW   OF   THE   WORLD. 


I.    CONTINENTS. 

C  Asia. 


Eastern 


II 


<  Africa. 
I  Europe. 


Western  , 


COMPARISON    OF   CONTINENTS. 

Old  World. 
1.    Has  its  greatest  length  from  ^ 
east  to  west,  or  in  the  direction  [ 


Difference. 


Similarity. 


Similarity. 


Similarity. 


of  the  parallels. 

2.  Has  its  greatest  width  aZong  1 
the  parallel  of  50°  N.  J 

3.  Runs  down  to  a  great  penin- 
sula (Africa),  which  ends  in  a 
cape  (Cape  of  Good  Hope). 

4.  The  great  southern  peninsula  ^ 
(Africa)  is  connected  with  the  I 
main  mass  by  an  isthmus  j 
(Isthmus  of  Suez).  J 

5.  Nearly  all  the  important  pen-  ~i 

insulas  jut  southerly  into  the  \  Similarity. 
ocean.  J 

6.  Grand  mountain-chains  ex- 
tend east  and  west. 

7.  Highest  mountain-peaks  rise 
near  the  Tropic  of  Cancer. 


Difference. 


.  Difference. 


Ill 


GRAND   DIVISIONS    OF   LAND. 

Names. 

Asia 

Africa 

North  America 

South  America 

Europe     


r  North  America. 
L  South  America. 


New  World. 

.  Has  its  greatest  length  from 
north  to  south,  or  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  meridians. 

.  Has  its  greatest  width  along 
the  parallel  of  50°  N. 

.  Runs  down  to  a  great  penin- 
sula (South  America),  which 
ends  in  a  cape  (Cape  Horn). 

.  The  great  southern  peninsula 
(South  America)  connected 
with  the  main  mass  by  an 
isthmus  (Isthmus  of  Panama). 

.  Nearly  all  the  important  pen- 
insulas jut  southerly  into  the 
ocean. 

,  Grand  mountain-chains  ex- 
tend north  and  soTdh. 

.  Highest  mountain-peaks  rise 
near  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn. 


Comparative  size, 
Europe  as  unit  of  measure. 


*1 

3 

2 

2 

1 


IV.    THE  OCEAN    AND   ITS    BRANCHES. 


BasiiL 


Hortheni  Basin, 

or 

Aiotio  Ocean. 


Soathern  Basin, 
or 

Antarotio  Ocean. 


Western  Basin, 
or 

Atlantic  Ocean. 


Eastern  Basin, 

or 

Pacific  Ocean. 


Bolitheastem 
Basin, 
or 
Indian  Ocean. 


Extent. 


Extends  around  the  North 
Pole,  and  is  boimded  l>y 
the  northern  shores  of 
America,  Europe,  and 
Asia,  and  by  the  Arctic 
Circle  in  the  spaces  be- 
tween the  continents. 


Extends  from  the  Antarctic 
Circle  around  the  South 
Pole. 


Bounded  on  the  west  by 
America ;  on  the  east  by 
Europe  and  Africa;  on 
the  north  by  the  Arctic, 
and  the  south  by  the 
Antarctic  Circles ;  and 
divided  into  north  and 
south  by  the  Equator 


Enclosed  between  America 
on  the  east ;  Asia,  the 
Sunda  Islands,  and  Aus- 
tralia, on  the  west;  tlie 
Arctic  Circle  on  the 
north;  the  Antarctic  on 
the  south;  and  divided 
into  north  and  south  by 
the  Equator. 


Bounded  by  Africa  on  the 
west ;  the  Sunda  Islands 
and  Australia  on  the 
east;  by  Southern  Asia 
on  the  north  ;  and  by  the 
Antarctic  Circle  on  the 
south. 


Area. 


4,000,000  square  miles. 


Little  is  known  of  this  im- 
mense basin ;  its  naviga- 
tion is  impeded  by  im- 
penetrable barriers  of  ice 
Sir  James  Ross,  however, 
in  1841,  penetrated  to  lat 
78°  4',  or  within  840  miles 
ofthc  South  Pole. 


Including  inland  seas,about 
30,000,000  square  miles. 


About    60,000,000     square 
miles. 


Estimated     at    23,000,000 
square  miles. 


Branches. 


Baffin  Bay. 
White  Sea. 
Gulf  of  Kara. 
GulfofObL 


Unknown. 


Baltic  Sea,  with  its 

gulfs. 
North  Sea. 
Mediterranean  Sea. 
Black  Sea. 
Hudson  Bay. 
Gulf  of  Mexico. 
Caribbean  Sea. 


Sea  of  China. 
Yellow  Sea. 
Sea  of  Japan. 
Sea  of  Okhotsk. 
Sea  of  Kamchatka 
Behring  Strait 
Gulf  of  California. 
Bay  of  Panama. 


Bed  Sea. 
Arabian  Sea- 
Persian  Gulf. 
Bay  of  Bengal 


V.    GREAT   PHYSICAL 

W/iere  is  each  ? 

Australia. 


FEATURES. 


Deaerihe  each. 


Seven  largest 
Islands    .    .    . 


Papua,  or  New  Guinra. 
Borneo. 

Madagascar. 
Sumatra. 
Japan  Isles. 
.  British  Isles. 


In  what  mountain  system  ? 


Principal  Moun- 
tain Ranges    .   . 


Himalaya. 

Rocky. 
Andes. 
Altai. 
Alps. 


Highest 

Mountain 

Peaks. 


In  Asia,  Everest. 
In  South  America,  Sorata. 
In  Africa,  Kilimanjaro. 
In  North  America.  Mt.  St.  Elias. 
.  In  Europe,  Elbruz. 


Through  what  cotmtries  does  each  flow  t 


Rivers  In 
order  of 
Commercial 
Importance. 


Mississippi. 
Danube. 
■   Yang-tse-Kiano. 
Plata. 
St.  Lawrence. 


Describe  each. 

Mississippi. 

Nile. 
Seven        Amazon. 
longest  .    Yenisei. 
Rivers.       YANG-TSE-KlANa 

Niger. 
Obi. 

Where  is  each? 
Caspian  Sea  (salt). 


Six  largest  I^alies. 


Superior. 

Michigan. 

Huron. 

Baikal. 

Victoria. 


VI. 


POPULATION. 

Asia,  (round  nomben)  800  m. 

Europe,  300  m. 

Africa,  190  m. 

North  America,  60  m. 
South  America,  30  m. 
Oceania,  20  m. 


Population  by 
Grand  Divisions. 


Population 
by  Races. 


Caucasian,  600  m. 
Mongolian,  550  m. 
African,  180  m. 
Malay,  60  m. 

Indian,  10  m. 


Total,         1,400  m. 


Total,  1,400  m. 


Population  by  Religions. 


Buddhists,  450  m. 
Christians,  400  m. 
Mohammedans,  200  m. 
Brahmanists,  175  m. 
Pagans,  170  m. 

Jews,  5  ra. 


Total,      1,400  m. 


VII 


Six  greatest  In 
Territory. 


NATIONS. 

Russian  Empire. 
British  Empire. 
Chinese  Empire. 
United  States. 
Brazil. 
Turkey. 


six  greatest  in 
Population. 


Chinese  Empire. 
British  Empire. 
Russian  Empire. 
German  Empire. 
United  States. 
France. 


six  greatest  In  Political  Power. 


VIII.    CITIES. 


Six  I.argest.    < 


London 

Paris 

Peking 

Tokio,  or  Yeddo 

New  York 

Constantinople 


Great  Britain. 

United  States. 

Germany. 

Russia. 

France. 

Austria. 


(Sim.)-) 
(2  m.) 
(If  m.) 
(1  m.) 
a  m.) 
(1    m.) 


Rach  one  million  or  over. 


Note.  —  Many  of  the  populous  but  unimportant  cities  of  Asia  are  omitted. 


Six  greatest  Se^rarts 


London. 
New  York. 
Liverpool. 
Boston. 
Bombay. 
New  Orleans. 


GENERAL    REVIEW    OF    THE    WORLD. 


129 


IX.    LEADING   COMMERCIAL   PRODUCTS. 


C€>ttOII. 

MIk. 

Wool. 

WhemU 

UjflTZB  StATKS. 

China. 

United  States. 

United  States. 

India. 

Japan. 

.Australia. 

Russia. 

China. 

Italy. 

Spain. 

France. 

Egypt. 

France. 

Austria. 

Blotw 

Tobacco. 

Bngmr. 

Coffee. 

China. 

United  Statjsu. 

Louisiana. 

Brazil. 

India. 

Cuba. 

CUHA. 

Java. 

Japan. 

Turkey. 

South  America. 

Arabia. 

Unitkd  Statm. 

boa. 

OoaL 

Gold. 

SUver. 

United  States. 

United  States. 

United  States. 

United  States. 

Great  Britain. 

Great  Britain. 

Australia. 

Mexico. 

Beuiium. 

Beloium. 

KUSSIA. 

Austria. 

RC8SIA. 

AUSTRAUA. 

Peru. 

SwED.  &  Norway. 

QnlekaUTer. 

Copper. 

Tin. 

Salt. 

Spain. 

United  States. 

Great  Britain. 

United  States. 

Austria. 

Great  Britain. 

Spain. 

Austria. 

Caufornia. 

Chili. 

Island  of  Banoa. 

Spain. 

Peru. 

Austria. 

AUSTRAiJA. 

Australia. 

X.    LEADING 


N. 


Bl«  SO"  " 

49*  ~ 

4a«  •• 

41'  " 

40°  " 

39°  •• 

37"  30'  " 

36°  " 

38»  •• 

30°  *• 

86"  " 

83°  30"  •' 

19°  " 
O       CEqaator] 

18°  S.  LaU 
88° 

36°  " 


POINTS  OF  LATITUDE. 

Key-Points.  Placei  of  same  Latitnde. 

ilK  NOBTB  AJUOUCA  THIS  PAXU-LSL 
PASSES  THKOCCn  NosTHERN  Lab- 
■AOOK  AHD  SODTBEUI  ALASKA. 

INOBTUEKN  PAST  or  NKWroOXDLAllD. 
SOI'TUEBI)    PABT    Ot    QCEEll    CHAB- 
LOTTB  ISLAXD. 

.   Northern        bounflary      of     (  p.„, 
WashlnKton  Territory.  I  " 

.   Boston {  Chicago. 

I   ROMB. 

.   New  York  .  ■ (  Madrid.  Pittsbcbob. 

I   COXSTAlCTUIOrLB.     8aLT  LAKE  CiTT. 

.   FhlUdelphla (  CotoMBBs,  O. 

(   rEKUIO. 

!8t.  Lodis,  Mo. 
LlSBOK. 
Mt.  Akarat. 

.    San  Francisco i  RJChhokd,  Va. 

I  Athens  (Gbekcr), 

.    Nashville Ybddo  (Tuiuo). 

.   Savannah (  M*»occo- 

G»..>uuu>u J  JeBUSAIBH. 

„ ,  (  Caibo  (Eotpt). 

.   NewOrleans j  nmoro. 

.    Southern  extremity  of  Floi^ 
Ida. 

•  Havana Caktob. 

*  City  of  Mexico Bohbat 

.   Quito. 

.   Callao Fkeetows. 

.   Klo  Janeiro 

.   Buenos  Ayres }  ^apb  or  Good  Hon. 

I  Stdbbt. 


TEST  QUESTIONS   FOR   WRITTEN    EXAMINATION. 


1.  What  is  the  distance  from  the  North  Pole  to  the  South  Pole  1 

2.  What  is  the  exact  latitude  and  longitude  of  the  place  where  you  live  I 

3.  What  spot  on  the  earth's  surface  has  neither  latitude  nor  longitude  ! 

4   Why  is  the  length  of  the  Equator  greater  than  that  of  any  meridian  circle  ? 

6.  What  causes  a  difference  in  time  at  different  points  upon  the  same  parallel  of 
latitude  ? 

6.  A  and  B  are  at  opposite  ends  of  a  telegraph.  A's  time  is  12  M.  at  Greenwich. 
'  t  the  same  instant  B's  time  is  4.30  P.  M.  Is  B  east  or  west  from  A,  and  how  many 
1? 


7.  A  and  B  start  from  Philadelphia.     A  travels  due  north  10°,  and  B  travels  due 
west  1 0° :  which  of  them  travels  the  greater  distance  ! 

8.  How  are  differences  of  climate  in  the  same  latitude  accounted  for  ? 

9.  Why  do  isothermal  lines  vary  from  lines  of  latitude  ? 

10.  What  is  the  latitude  of  the  tropics  and  polar  circles  I 


1.  What  ports  of  the  Grand  Divisions  of  land  are  croesed  by  the  tropica  1 

2.  What  is  the  area  of  the  United  States  ? 

3.  What  Grand  Division  has  nearly  the  same  area  as  the  United  States ! 

4.  What  Grand  Divisions  lie  upon  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean  ?  Upon 
the  western  ? 

6.  What  Grand  Divisions  lie  upon  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Pacific !    Upon  the 
western  ? 

6.  What  three  Grand  Divisions  form  nearly  a  circle  round  the  Arctic  Ocean  ? 

7.  What  Grand  Divisions  are  wholly  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere  t 
&  Which  are  partly  in  the  Southern  Hemisphere  ? 

9.  Which  has  its  greatest  length  from  east  to  west,  the  New  World  or  the  Old 
World  t 

10.  Which  has  its  greatest  length  from  north  to  south  t 


m. 


1. 
a 

3. 
4. 
6. 


In  what  direction  do  the  great  mountain-systems  of  the  New  World  extend  ? 
In  what  direction  do  the  great  mountain-systems  of  the  Old  World  extend  ? 
What  is  the  difference  between  a  plain  and  a  jilatean  t 
How  does  North  America  compare  in  outline  with  South  America  t 
How  does  the  outline  of  South  America  compare  with  that  of  Africa  ? 

6.  Where  do  the  Eastern  and  Western  continents  approach  each  other  the  most 
closely  ? 

7.  Whether  do  the  minority  of  riven  flow  Mstward  or  westward  T 


8.  AVTiy  does  the  Nile  grow  smaller  as  it  approaches   the  sea,  while  the  Missis- 
sippi grows  larger  ? 

9.  In  what  direction  do  most  of  the  great  peninsulas  of  the  world  project  ? 

10.  A  line  drawn  south  from  New   York  would  traversa  what  part  of  South 
America  ? 

IV. 

L   What  ocean  receives  the  greater  amount  of   drainage,  the  Atlantic  or  the 
Pacific? 

2.  Name  all  the  countries  around  the  Mediterranean,  beginning  at  the  northwest. 

3.  Is  Russia  a  mountainous  country  ?     Is  Switzerland  ?  —  Belgium  ?  —  Spain  ? 

4.  What  ocean  occupies  more  space  than  all  the  land  on  the  earth's  surface  ! 

5.  What  waters  are  connected  by  the  following  imi)ortant  straits  :  Gibraltar?  — 
Dover  ?  —  Bosphorus  ?  —  Skager  Rack  ?  —  Malacca  t 

6.  Locate  the  following  noted  capes  :  Horn  ;  —  Good  Hope  ;  —  St.  Roi^ue  ;  — Verde  ; 
Hatteras  ;  —  Mendocino  ;  —  Race  ;  —  North  ;  —  Cod  ;  —  Sandy  HooL 

7.  Name  the  three  freest  nations  on  the  earth. 

8.  What  is  the  only  monarchy  in  South  America  ! 

9.  What  two  important  republics  in  Europe  f 

10.  What  nation  has  possessions  in  so  many  parts  of  the  world  that  it  is  said  the 
sun  never  sets  on  her  dominions  ! 

V. 

1.  How  do  grain-ships  from  San  Francisco  reach  Liverpool  J 

2.  What  countries  supply  the  world  with  diamonds  ? 

3.  What  effect  has  the  great  production  of  petroleum  had  on  the  whale-fishery  f 

4.  What  countries  supply  india-rubber !  . 

5.  How  does  Africa,  as  a  tropical  continent,  differ  from  South  America  f 

6.  What  are  the  chief  commercial  centers  of  North  America  ? 

7.  Trace  a  water-route  from  Chicago  to  Yedda 

8.  What  States  in  the  Union  have  most  coal  t 

9.  What  is  the  population  of  the  United  States  t 

10.  What  nations  of  Europe  have  nearly  the  same  population  as  the  United  States  t 


VI 


Name  the  principal  countries  in  which  the  F.nglish  language  is  spoken. 

What  nation  forms  the  most  progressive  representative  of  the  Mongolian  race  ? 

In  what  part  of  the  world  is  cannibalism  still  practiced  ! 

Whore  are  the  following  wheat  ports  :  Odessa  >  —  Chicago !  —  San  Frandsco  ? 
—  Valparaiso  ? 
6.   Under  what  dominion  is  the  Holy  Land  at  present  ? 
6.  What  nation  has  been  semi-civilized  but  unprogreadve  for  four  thousand  years  ? 


1. 
2. 

a 

4. 


130 


A 


SYSTEM    OF    MAP-DEAWING. 


B^f    E.    A..   AIVr>    A..    C.    A.I?G^f%Lll. 


This  system  of  Map-Drawing  is  substantially  the  same  as  that  originally  prepared  by  the  authors  and  published  in  1865.    Such  improvements  have  been 

introduced,  however,  as  the  pradlical  workings  of  the  system  have  shown  to  be  important. 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEACHERS. 


THE  study  of  geography  consists  principally  in  a  study 
of  the  form  and  locality  of  the  features  of  the  earth's 
surface.  Maps  give  a  much  better  idea  of  the  form  and 
locahty  of  geographical  features  than  can  be  obtained 
from  descriptions  only;  hence,  maps  should  be  the 
principal  objects  of  study  in  geography. 

The  pupil  commits  his  lesson  in  text  to  memory,  and 
for  a  recitation,  he  repeats  it  to  the  teacher  as  given  by 
the  author.  In  studying  maps  the  same  rule  should  be 
observed;  that  is,  the  maps  should  be  committed  to 
memory,  and  for  a  recitation  they  should  be  reproduced 
as  given  in  the  book. 

That  form  is  easiest  remembered  which  the  hand  is 
taught  to  trace.  The  exercise  of  the  mind,  needed  to 
teach  the  hand  to  trace  a  form,  impresses  that  form  upon 
the  mind.  As  the  study  of  maps  is  a  study  of  form,  the 
manner  of  studying  them  should  be  by  map-drawing. 

In  learning  to  draw  maps,  the  pupil  needs  some  rule  or 
guide  to  assist  him  in  drawing  them  correctly,  and  also 
to  enable  him  to  judge  of  their  accuracy  when  drawn. 
This  assistance  is  best  afforded  by  the  use  of  geometrical 
figures  or  diagrams.  The  diagram  used  in  each  case, 
in  order  to  answer  the  purpose  intended,  should  be 
so  constructed  as  to  coincide  as  nearly  as  possible  in  its 
outline  with  the  boundaries  of  the  map  to  be  drawn.  By 
the  relative  lengths  of  the  lines  of  which  it  is  composed, 
it  should  express  the  general  laws  of  form  of  the  map  it 
is  intended  to  accompany,  and,  by  its  angles  and  division 
marks,  the  position  of  prominent  features  should  be  deter- 
mined. However  complex  and  irregular  the  map  may 
be,  the  diagram  should  be  so  simple  that  it  can  be  readily 
constructed  and  easily  remembered  by  the  pupils. 

In  the  construction  of  the  diagrams  used  for  drawing 
the  Continents,  the  first  line  in  each  case  serves  as  a  measure 
for  determining  the  lengths  of  the  other  lines.  For  the 
States  no  additional  diagram  is  used,  because  the  bounding 
lines  are  generally  straight,  and  they  themselves  when 
taken  together  form  a  geometrical  figure.  In  drawing  the 
States,  therefore,  it  is  only  necessary  to  select  one  of  the 
straight  lines  forming  the  boundary  for  a  measuring  unit. 
The  line  selected  should  be  a  convenient  measure  or  mul- 
tiple of  the  other  lines. 

In  conducting  exercises  in  map-drawing,  the  class 
should  be  practiced,— ^rrf  in  drawing  upon  the  black- 
board, under  the  immediate  direction  of  the  teacher; 
second,  in  drawing  upon  slates,  their  work  to  be  sub- 
mitted to  the  teacher ;  and  third,  in  executing  maps  upon 
paper,  to  be  presented  for  the  criticism  of  both  the  teacher 
and  the  class. 

Either  the  teacher  or  one  of  the  more  skillful  pupils 
should  execute  a  well-finished  and  accurate  map  upon 
the  blackboard.  From  this  drawing — which  is  much  to 
be  preferred  to  any  printed  outline  map— the  class  may 
recite  their  lesson,  and  upon  it  each  of  the  new  features, 
as  they  are  learned  from  day  to  day,  may  be  represented. 

It  is  well  to  accompany  every  lesson  in  map-drawing 


with  more  or  less  practice  in  rapid  sketching.  In  order 
to  excite  emulation  for  quick  work,  the  lesson  may 
be  drawn  on  the  board,  and  the  exercise  timed  by 
the  teacher.  Pupils,  by  practice,  will  soon  be  able  to 
draw  a  diagram  in  half  a  minute,  a  State  in  from 
half  a  minute  to  two  minutes,  and  a  Continent  in  from 
three  to  five  minutes.  Concert  recitation  should  frequently 
accompany  rapid  sketching. 

An  exercise  called  talking  and  chalking  will  be  found 
both  interesting  and  valuable.  The  pupil,  while  he  is 
drawing  a  map,  briefly  and  in  a  lively  manner,  describes 
the  features  as  he  represents  them ;  his  verbal  explana- 
tions all  the  while  keeping  pace  with  his  illustrations 
made  with  the  chalk. 

All  directions  and  exercises  in  map-drawing  should  be 
such  as  to  prepare  the  pupil  to  draw  rapidly,  accurately, 
and  without  the  copy. 

After  the  pupils  have  learned  to  draw  a  map  with 
sufiicient  accuracy,  and  are  able  to  describe  satisfactorily 
the  features  it  contains,  they  may,  with  the  use  of  colors 
and  India  ink,  be  taught  to  draw  and  embellish  one  for 
preservation.  Not  much  time,  however,  should  be  spent 
in  producing  highly  ornamented  maps.  A  slate-pencil  and 
slate,  lead-pencil  and  paper,  white  crayon  and  blackboard, 
are  all  the  materials  usually  needed  in  map-drawing  exer- 
cises.    Rapid  work  and  much  of  it  should  be  the  motto. 

Special  attention  should  be  directed  to  the  method 
employed  for  representing  the  population  of  cities  and 
the  heights  of  elevations.  The  symbols  used  will  greatly 
assist  the  memory  in  retaining  these  facts.  Special  lessons 
may  be  given  to  teach  their  meaning.  Their  use  should 
be  required  in  all  map-drawing  exercises. 

In  drawing  a  Continent,  the  pupils  should  be  taught,— ^rj/,  to 
construct  the  diagram  accurately ;  second,  to  draw  the  coast  line, 
and  to  describe  all  the  features  formed  by  it,  such  as  peninsulas,  capes, 
bays,  gulfs,  &c. ;  and  third,  to  draw  and  describe  the  internal 
features,  such  as  mountains,  lakes,  rivers  and  cities.  It  is  all  impor- 
tant that  the  pupils  should  be  able  to  draw  the  oudine  of  a  Continent 
readily  and  accurately,  before  they  attempt  to  represent  the  internal 
features ;  for  upon  an  imperfect  drawing  of  the  outline,  the  details 
must  necessarily  be  imperfect. 

In  describing  the  features  of  a  map,  observe  the  following  order 
and  directions : — 

Diagram. — Explain  in  full  the  manner  of  its  construction. 

Points  of  Coincidence. — Name  in  order  the  angles  and  division 
marks  upon  the  diagram,  and  the  featiu^s  upon  the  map,  the 
location  of  which  they  determine. 

Peninsulas.— State  from  what  portion  of  the  Continent  they  pro- 
ject, and  by  what  waters  they  are  embraced. 

Capes. — State  from  what  portion  of  the  Continent  they  project, 
and  into  what  waters. 

Bays. — Give  their  location,  and  the  names  of  the  bodies  of  water 
to  which  they  are  tributary. 

Islands. — State  where  situated,  and  name  the  waters  by  which 
they  are  surrounded. 

Mountains. — Give  their  height,  the  general  direction  in  which 
they  extend,  and  the  part  of  the  Continent  where  they  are  located. 

Lakes. —State  where  located,  and  name  the  river  which  forms  the 
outlet. 

Rivers. — State  where  they  rise,  in  what  direction  they  flow,  and 
into  what  waters. 

Political  Divisions. — Bound  the  country,  and  name,  bound, 
and  give  the  capital  of  each  of  the  divisions. 

Cities. — Give  location  and  population. 


EXPLANATION  OP  THE  SIGNS 

USED  TO  BEPBESENr   THE   POPULATION  OF  THE 

CITIES  AND  TOWNS. 


PIEST  CLASS. 

In  the  First  Class  only  one  Sign  is  used  viz.  a  roond  dot. 
•  represents  under  10.000  Inhabitants. 

SECOND  CLASS.  THIRD  CLASS. 

Kach  Lino  of  tho  Soconrt  Class  The  markings  of  the  Thitd  Class 

rcprcseuts  a  population  of  10.000,  havo  a  Dot  in  tho  centre.  Each 
Lino  upon  this  Dot  represents 
100.000  population. 

Q 10,000  «■ JOO,O0O 

+ 20,000  +- a»,ooo 

•rt 30,000  ""- 300,000 

* 10,000  * ■"».«» 

fflL 60,000  *- 500,000 

m JO.O09  * «o^«» 

^ 70,000  *ft- ^'"o.ow 

p. 80,000  ift 800,000 

^ 90,000  ©- 9W.O0O 

FOURTH  CLASS. 

The  markings  of  the  Fourth  Class  havo  a  Dot  and  Circle  (  ®  )  In 
tho  centro.  Each  Line  upon  this  Dot  and  Circle  reproHcnts  1,000,000 
inhabitants. 

©. 1,000.000  ■^- -3,000,000 

•^. 2,000^10  %. 4,000,000 

EXPLANATION  OF   THE  SIGNS 

USED  TO  REPRESENT  THE 

ELEVATION  OF  TIIE  MOUNTAIN'S. 


RANGES. 

nni  and  Monntain  Ranges,  Like  the  Cities,  are  divided  into  Four 
classes.  TheFirstisrepiflBcntedby  a  series  of  Parallel  Curves;  the  Se- 
cond by  a  series  of  Interlocking  Curves;  the  Third  by  a  Waved  Line; 
and  the  FotirtU  by  a  Zigzag  Line ;  as  follows: 


.)J)))W))))))))))n)    JVr.<  Clou  or2K«..-Uiider  2000  ft.Mgh. 

,^^^^^^.^AA>^     Second  Ctass,-  Botweou  2000  t  8000  ft.  Tligh, 
'   ^     ^^  'S''«ii?^iii<'''ii     "  Between  ^  and  J  ^^  miles  higl. 

nira  aoM,— Setween.  8000 1 16,000  ft.  lUgll, 
or  Between  1^  and  3  miles  liigh. 


A  A  4  A  i 


JFourOi  Clati, -Orel  16,000  Sett  iug\ 
or  over  Smiles  high. 


PEAKS. 

For  Peaks  nnder  one  mile  high  each  Curve  upon  the  right  represents 
One-Fourth  of  a  mile  Elevation ;  for  those  one  mile  high  or  more,  each 
Line  upon  the  right  represents  One  Mile  in  Elevation  and  the  Daah 
underneath  One  Haifa  Mile. 


O    >i  of  a  mac  Ugh. 
/T\    Jj           ..        .. 

A 
A 

2>^  miles  lugh. 
3 

r^  }i      ..    „ 

A 

m     ,.        .. 

A    1         „      .. 

A 

4        „       .. 

A    IX  miles  high. 

A 

iH       n         .. 

A   2     ..      .. 

A 

s      .,      .. 

£i/s(e7n  JUendsd  October  16  Sk.,  ISee. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  qf  Congress,  in  the  year  7*73,  by  E  A  <5-  /»   C.  APCAR,  «"»  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


lil 


DIRECTIONS  FOR  DRAWING  NORTH  AMERICA. 


Diagram. — !•  Draw  a  quadrant,  and  divide  it  into  four 
equal  parts,  as  represented  in  the  figure.  Through  the 
first  division  at  i ,  and  the  right  angle,  draw  the  first  line 
of  the  diagram  the  length  desired  for  the  map. 

3.  From  the  centre  of  this  line,  draw  the  line  C  D  at 
tight  angles  with  it,  and  one-half  its  length.  Connect 
A  D  and  B  D. 

3.  Extend  the  line  C  D  toward  E,  making  the  whole 
length  D  E,  equal  to  1  D  or  B  D,  and  draw  the  lines  A  E 
and  E  B. 

4.  Divide  the  line  A  E  into  four  equal  parts,  and  from 
the  upper  division-point  at  0,  draw  the  line  G  H  at  right 
angles  to  A  E,  and  equal  to  E  C  in  length.  Connect 
AandH. 

6,  Divide  the  line  E  B  into  two  equal  parts,  and  from 
its  centre,  and  at  right  angles  with  it,  draw  the  line  I  J 
one-half  the  length  of  E  C,  and  connect  E  and  J,  and  J 
and  B. 

6.  Divide  the  lines  C  D  and  C  B  each  into  two  equal 
parts,  and  the  lines  A  D  and  D  B  each  into  six  equal 
ports. 

7>  Sub-divide  the  lower  division  of  the  line  D  B  into 
three  equal  parts,  and  from  the  division-point  at  L  draw 
L  M,  and  from  ■  draw  X  9,  and  from  K  draw  N  0, — 
making  the  length  of  each  line  equal  to  two-thirds  of  the 
distance  from  B  to  K,  or  equal  to  the  distance  from 
I.  to  K. 

It  will  be  observed  that  if  the  diagram  is  correctly 
drawn,  the  lines  D  A,  D  E  and  D  B  are  equal  in  length, 
and  the  line  A  E  is  vertical. 

Position. — North  America  is  situated  North  of  the 
Equator,  and  is  joined  to  South  America  by  the  Isthmus 
of  Panama. 

Extent. — The  length  of  the  Continent,  extending  from 
Point  Barrow,  on  the  North,  to  the  Port  of  Guatemala  on 
the  South,  is  4,800  miles. 

General  Form. — The  general  form  of  North  America 
is  triangular.  It  is  wide  toward  the  North,  and  narrow 
toward  the  South.  The  Arctic  and  Atlantic  coast-lines 
are  nearly  straight  in  their  general  direction,  while  the 
Pacific  coast-line  is  curved. 

Points  of  Coincidence. — The  position  of  Point  Bar- 
row is  determined  by  the  northern  angle  of  the  diagram; 
Cape  Charles  by  the  eastern  angle;  Port  of  Guatemala  by 
the  southern  angle ;  Bay  of  San  Francisco  by  the  western 
angle;  and  the  western  extremity  of  Alaska  Peninsula 
by  the  north-western  angle. 

'Drawing  tiie  Map. — Arette  coast. —  Commence  at 
Point  Barrow.  Make  the  mouth  of  the  Mackenzie  River 
opposite  the  first  division ;  Victoria  Land  on  the  second ; 
the  mouth  of  Hudson  Bay  between  the  third  and  fourth, 
•nd  Ungava  Bay  and  Cape  Chidley  near  the  fifth  division. 
The  southern  extremity  of  Hudson  Bay  touches  the  line 
C  D  near  its  centre. 

Mlantie  Coast. — Make  the  Pena.  of  Nova  Scotia  oppo- 
site the  first  division ;  Cape  Cod  north  of  the  second,  and 
Cape  Fear  at  the  third.  The  western  shore  of  Florida 
crosses  at  the  fourth  division;  the  mouth  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexi- 
co is  between  the  fourth  and  fifth,  and  Yucatan  Pena.  ex- 
tends as  far  north  as  the  fifth.  The  shore  of  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  crosses  the  line  C  B  near  its  centre,  and  touches  the 
line  B  B.  The  shore  of  Central  America,  and  the  Isthmus 
of  Panama  follows  closely  the  zigzag  line  from  K  to  0. 

Faeiflo  Coast. — California  Peninsula  extends  nearly  as 
tar  south  as  the  angle  at  J,  and  the  eastern  shore  of  the 
Golf  of  California  crosses  the  line  I  i  near  its  centre. 

Neta.— It  wai  be  oburrcd  that  the  lake  of  the  Woodi  b  on  the 
Uiie  C  •,  midway  between  !u  centre  and  c ;  also,  that  Lake  Erie  is 
aiidm>  between  the  eentia  of  the  Una  e  D  and  B  D. 

*  In  these  directiont  fer  drawing,  tome  features  are  referred  to 
which  are  not  fotuul  upoo  the  accompanying  maps.  In  such  cases 
k  i*  (spectMl  that  tha  popQ  will  id*r  10  tha  otbar  maps  is  ih«  book. 


DIRECTIONS  FOR  DRAWING  SOUTH  AMERICA. 


Diagram. — I-  Draw  the  vertical  line  A  H  the  length 
desired  for  the  map,  and  divide  it  into  four  equal  parts. 
From  the  upper  division-point,  draw  a  horizontal  line  to 
the  right,  one-half  the  length  of  the  first  line,  and  divide 
it  into  three  equal  parts.  Extend  this  horizontal  line 
one-third  of  its  length  to  the  left. 

2>  Draw  straight  lines  from  C  to  F,  from  F  to  A,  from 
A  to  E,  and  from  E  to  B,  and  divide  the  lines  F  A,  A  E, 
and  E  B,  each  into  three  equal  parts. 

General  Form. — South  America  in  its  general  form  is  wedge- 
shaped — being  wide  toward  the  north  and  narrow  toward  the  south. 
Its  coast-line  is  simple,  and  deviates  but  little  from  the  lines  of  the  dia- 
gram. The  length  of  the  Continent  from  north  to  south  is  4,500  miles. 

Points  of  Coincidence.— The  position  of  the  Peninsula  of  Para- 
guana  is  determined  by  the  northern  angle  of  the  figure ;  Cape  St. 
Roque  by  the  eastern  angle  ;  Cape  Pillar  by  the  southern,  and  Cape 
Farina  by  the  western.  Opposite  the  second  division-point,  on  the 
line  r  A,  is  the  Isthmus  of  Panama ;  and  opposite  the  second,  on  the 
line  A  B,  is  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon.  Opposite  the  first  division  on 
the  line  ■  B  is  Cape  Frio,  and  opposite  the  second  is  the  mouth  of 
the  Rio  de  la  Rata. 


DIRECTIONS  FOR  DRAWING  AFRICA. 


Diagram. — !•  By  means  of  a  quadrant  divided  into  six 
equal  parts,  as  represented  in  the  figure,  draw  the  first  line 
of  the  diagram  the  length  desired  for  the  map. 

2.  Divide  this  line  into  two  equal  parts  at  C,  and  the 
upper  half  in  four  equal  parts. 

3i  With  the  points  A  and  B  as  centres,  and  with  a 
radius  equal  to  three-fourths  of  the  first  line,  draw  two 
arcs  to  intersect  D,  and  draw  the  lines  A  D  and  B  D.  In 
the  same  manner  with  the  points  A  and  C  as  centres,  and 
with  a  radius  equal  to  three-fourths  of  the  line  A  C,  deter- 
mine the  point  E;  and  draw  A  E  and  C  E. 

4.  Divide  the  line  A  D  into  two  equal  parts,  and  draw 
the  perpendicular  F  H  equal  to  one-eighth  of  the  first  line. 
Divide  the  part  F  D  into  two  equal  parts,  and  draw  the 
lines  A  H  and  H  0.  Trisect  each  of  the  lines  A  H,  D  B, 
B  C  and  C  E. 

General  Form. — Africa  resembles  both  North  America  and  South 
America  in  its  general  form,  being  wide  at  the  north  and  narrow 
toward  the  south.  Its  coast  is  very  regular,  .like  that  of  South 
America.  Its  length,  from  Cape  Spartel  to  Cape  Agulhas,  is  5,000 
miles.  like  South  America,  it  is  situated  on  both  sides  of  the 
Equator. 

Points  of  Coincidence. — The  position  of  Cape  Spartel  is  deter- 
mined by  the  northern  angle  of  the  diagram ;  the  Isthmus  of  Suez  by 
the  north-eastern  angle ;  Cape  Guardafui  by  the  eastern  angle;  Cape 
AgtUhas  by  the  southern,  and  Cape  Roxo  by  the  western. 

Outline.— Commence  at  Cape  Spartel,  and  draw  the  northern  and 
eastern  coasts ;  then,  from  the  same  point,  draw  the  western  coast. 
The  coast  from  Cape  Spartel  to  Cape  Bon  is  without  the  line  of  the 
diagram ;  then  It  crosses  the  line,  and  forms  the  Gulf  of  Sidra,  oppo- 
site the  second  division-point.  The  western  shore  of  the  Red  Sea 
follows  the  line  B  G,  and  makes  an  inward  curve  between  6  and  D. 
The  eastern  shore  first  makes  a  small  outward  curve ;  touches  the 
line  at  the  first  division-point,  and  then  makes  a  much  larger  bend 
without  the  fine,  touching  again  at  Cape  Agulhas.  From  this  point 
it  deviates  but  litde  from  the  diagram  till  it  reaches  Cape  Lopez. 
Between  this  point  and  the  first  division  on  the  line  c  K,  there  is  a 
large  inward  bend  forming  the  Gulf  of  Guinea.  It  then  bends  with- 
out the  line  tilt  we  reach  Cape  Roxo.  From  Cape  Roxo  to  Capo 
Spartel  the  coast  is  wholly  without  the  line. 


I 


Figure  1  represents  a  convenient  Ruler  for  pupilit  to  use  in  drawfns 
maps  upon  the  btackboard.  It  b  twenty  inches  long,  and  dividea 
Into  haJves,  thirds,  fourths  and  sixths.  A  similar  one,  six  lochet 
loi^,  may  be  used  for  drawing  on  slate  or  paper. 


^jjr-  a- 

Figure   •   represents  an  easy 
MacwKl  £oK  drawii^  a  quadra  nt. 


Figure   3   represenu   an  aay 
BMwod  for  trisecting  a  Una. 


<4ol6.— In  the  construction  of  diagrams,  and  in  the  Olvlslon  of 
lines,  the  pupils  should  at  first  be  allowed  to  use  a  ruler,  such  as  the 
one  represented  in  figure  i.  After  some  practice,  however,  the  niler 
should  be  dispensed  with,  and  the  figures  should  be  drawn  by  hand, 
guided  only  by  the  eye. 

In  drawing  a  quadrant,  a  piece  of  crayon  held  between  tne  thumb 
and  first  finger  may  be  made  to  describe  the  arc  around  the  end  of 
the  fourth  finger,  as  represented  in  figure  a.  A  vertical  and  a  hori- 
zontal line  drawn  from  the  centre  to  the  arc  will  complete  the 
quadrant.  Instead  of  the  hand,  a  short  string  with  a  piece  of  crayon 
tied  to  the  end  of  it  may  be  used;  or,  each  pupil  may  be  furnished 
with  a  quarter  of  a  arde,  cut  out  of  a  piece  of  writing  paper,  having 
the  divisions  of  quarters  and  sixths  marked  upon  it. 

In  dividing  a  line  into  three  equal  parts,  use  the  finger  crone  hand 
and  a  crayon  in  the  other,  and  place  them  so  that  the  three  parts  ap. 
pear  equal,  as  represented  in  figure  3. 

In  dividing  a  line  into  four  or  six  parts,  first  bisect  Tt,  ana  then 
bbcct  or  trisect  each  half. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  different  lines  of  the  %  agrams  are 
drawn  in  the  order  they  are  lettered,  and  that  the  divisions  are  made 
in  the  order  they  are  numbered. 

In  drawing  upon  paper  or  slate,  the  diagram  should  be  In  very 
light  lines.  For  blackboard  work,  the  figure  should  be  drawn  with 
a  slate-pencil. 

MODEL  LESSON  IN  MAP-DRAWING. 

In  Map^rawing  Exercises,  the  pupils  may  either  be  required  to 
describe  their  work  in  full,  without  the  assistance  of  questions;  or, 
the  lessons  may  consist  of  a  series  of  questions  and  answers  similar 
to  the  following  model  :— 

North  America. — After  the  diagram  is  made,  the  cnss  is  pre> 
pared  to  draw  the  map, — first,  with  the  atlas  in  hand,  and  afterwards 
from  memory.  Every  order  given  by  the  teacher  should  be  executed 
by  the  class  simultaneously,  and  with  military  promptness  and  pre- 
cision. The  execution  should  commence  immediately  after  the  last 
word  of  the  order  is  given.  Each  pupil  is  supposed  to  have  his  own 
diagram  on  the  board  upon  which  he  draws  his  map. 

Outline:  Teachtr. — ^What  U  the  most  northern  point  of  North 
America? 

Scholars. — Point  Barrow. 

7*.— Show  where  Point  Barrow  is  located.  In  what  direction  fitua 
it  is  Cape  Charles  f 

S. — South-east. 

T.— Point  where  Cape  Charles  is  located.    (Scholars  point.) 

Now  make  a  dot  showing  the  location  of  each  of  the  following 
places  between  these  two  Capes: — ist.  For  Cape  Bathurst.  (Scholar* 
made  the  dot  with  the  crayon.)  ad.  For  Victoria  Land.  3d.  For 
the  northern  extremity  of  Melville  Pena.  4th.  For  Hudson  Strait. 
What  large  bay  between  Melville  Peninsula  and  Hudson  Strait  f 

S. — Hudson  Bay. 

T. — 5th.  For  the  southern  extremity  of  Hudson  Bay.  (Dot.)  6di. 
For  Cape  Chidley.    What  bay  south-west  from  Cape  Chidley  f 

aS". — Ungava  Bay. 

T. — Draw  the  coast-line  from  Point  Barrow  to  Cape  Bathurst, 
(Scholars  draw.)  From  Cape  Bathurst  to  Victoria  Land.  From 
Victoria  Land  to  Melville  Peninsula.  Draw  Hudson  Bay  and  James 
Bay.     Draw  the  Une  from  Hudson  Strait  to  Cape  Charles. 

The  teacher  should  now  make  a  brief  inspection  of  the  work,  don^ 
and  point  out  and  correct  all  the  faults  made. 

In  this  manner  the  oudine  of  North  America  should  be  completed. 

Mountains:  7*.— How  far  do  the  Rocky  Mountains  extendf 

S. — Through  the  entire  length  of  North  America. 

7*.— What  is  their  elevation  T 

5.— Between  8,000  and  i6,cx»  feet,  except  the  northern  portion, 
which  is  only  between  3,000  and  8,000  feet 

7*.— Draw  the  Rocky  Mountains  nearly  parallel  with,  and  at  a  pro- 
per disunce  from  the  Pacific  CoasL  What  range  in  the  eastern  part 
of  the  Continent? 

5.— The  Appalachian  Mountains. 

7.— What  is  the  elevation  of  this  range? 

5.— About  2, 000  feet. 

7.— Draw  it.  The  teacher  should  now  inspect  the  drawing  of  the 
mountains  and  correct  mistakes. 

Lakes :  7.— What  three  lakes  have  their  outlet  through  the  Mac 
kenzie  River? 

5.— Great  Bear  Lake,  Great  Slave  Lake,  and  Athabasca  Lake. 

T'.—Point  where  the  first  is  located ;  the  second ;  the  third.  Draw 
the  first ;  the  second  ;  the  third. 

In  this  manner  complete  the  drawing  of  the  lakes. 

Rivers:   7.— Describe  the  Yukon  River. 

S.  -It  rises  near  the  Pacific  Coast  and  west  of  the  Great  Slave 
Lake ;  fiows,  fint,  in  a  north-westerly  direction,  then  westerly  through 
the  country  of  Alaska,  and  empties  into  Behring  Sea- 

7*.— Draw  it.  Follow  in  the  same  manner  with  the  Mackenzie; 
Nelson:  Albany;  St.  Lawrence;  Otuwa;  Savannah,  and  Alabama. 

7— Describe  the  Mississippi  River. 

5.— It  rises  tn  a  smalt  take  west  of  Lake  Superior,  ana  south  of  the 
Lake  of  the  Woods ;  flows  a  southerly  course  through  the  United 
States,  and  empties  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

7. — Draw  it.     Draw  the  tributaries,  and  describe  tnem. 

Complete  the  rivers  in  this  way,  and  inspect  the  work. 

Cities :  7. — Locate  the  cities  as  I  name  them,  talcing  pains  to  show 
the  population  of  each  as  it  is  done  in  the  book. 


132 


DIRECTIONS  FOR  DRAWING  AUSTRALIA. 

Diagram. — l.  Draw  the  horizontal  line  A  B  the  length  desired  for  the  map, 
and  bisect  it  at  C. 

2.  Through  the  centre  C  draw  the  line  D  E  at  right  angles  to  A  B,  making 
C  D  and  C  E  each  one-third  the  length  of  A  B. 

3>  Draw  D  F  at  right  angles  to  D  E,  and  one-fourth  the  length  of  A  B,  and 
connect  F  and  B. 

4.  Draw  0  H  at  right  angles  to  D  E,  making  G  E  and  E  H,  each  equal  to  F  B 
in  length,  and  bisect  the  lines  C  E  and  E  H. 

Points  of  Coincidence. — North-west  Cape  coincides  with  the  angle  at  A;  Sandy  Cape, 
with  the  angle  at  B  ;  Cape  Howe,  with  the  angle  at  U  ;  and  Cape  Leeuwin,  with  the  angle  at 
G.    Cape  York  is  a  little  north  of  the  angle  at  F. 

Map.— From  fl  the  coast  extends  toward  the  centre  of  the  line  C  E,  and  from  this  point  it 
extends  toward  and  crosses  near  the  bisecting  point  of  the  line  E  H. 

The  Gulf  of  Carpentaria  is  situated  between  D  and  P,  and  extends  toward  the  south  nearly 
half  way  to  the  line  A  B. 

Note.— If  Australia  is  drawn  without  New  Zealand,  the  first  line  A  B  should  be  inclined  alxnit 
five  degrees  from  the  horizontal,  the  extremity  A  being  farther  north  than  the  extremity  B. 


isa 


DIRECTIONS  FOR  DRAWING  EUROPE. 

Diagram.— Draw  the  horizontal  line  A  B  the 
length  desired  for  the  map.  This  line  connects 
tho  mouth  of  the  Douro  River  with  Cape  Ap- 
sheron, lu  length  is  3,000  miles.  With  Aand  B 
as  centres,  and  with  a  radius  equal  to  three-fourths 
of  A  B,  draws  arcs  to  intersect  at  C,  and  connect 
A  and  C,  and  B  and  C.  Divide  A  C  into  four, 
C  B  into  six,  ard  A  B  into  eight  equal  parts. 
From  the  first  division  to  the  right  of  G,  and  from 
the  angle  A  draw  vertical  lines,  as  shown  in  the 
figure,  each  one-eighth  the  length  of  A  B.  Con- 
nect H  and  I,  and  divide  the  right-hand  half  of 
this  line  into  four  equal  parts.  From  D  draw  a 
perpendicular  line  equal  to  two  and  one-half 
divisions  on  the  line  A  B,  and  bisect  it  Connect 
0  and  F,  and  E  and  B.  From  E  draw  a  line  in 
the  direction  of  the  centre  of  C  B  until  it  meets  a 
vertical  line  drawn  from  the  angle  C. 

Map.— In  drawing  the  map  commence  at  c,  on  the 
coast  of  Norway,  and  draw,  in  order,  the  northern  and 
eastern  boundaries ;  then  commence  again  at  C  and  draw 
the  western  and  southern  boundaries.  The  coast  of  Noi^ 
way  follows  the  line  C  A,  and  extends  south  to  a  point  about 
midway  between  C  and  K.  The  lines  C  L  and  h  I  wiU 
assist  in  drawing  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  the  Baltic  Sea,  and 
the  north-western  shores  of  Germany  and  France.  Tho 
head  of  the  Bay  of  Biscay  is  near  the  first  division  to  the 
right  of  A,  on  the  line  A  B.  The  Gulfs  of  Lions  and  Genoa 
ate  on  opposite  sides  of  the  second  division,  and  the  head 
ofthe  Adriatic  Sea  embraces  the  third  divisioiL  The  fifih 
division  marks  the  western  extremity  of  the  Black  Sea ; 
the  Sea  of  Azov  is  north  of  the  sixth  division,  and  the 
eastern  extremity  of  the  Black  Sea  is  near  the  seventh. 
Italy  resembles  in  outline  the  shape  of  a  boot.  The 
southern  extremity  is  between  the  first  and  second  divisions 
to  the  right  of  J  on  the  line  H  I.  The  Peninsula  of  Greece 
is  situated  between  the  second  and  third  divisions,  and 
extends  south  of  this  line  equal  to  one  division.  The  Sea 
of  Marmora  is  a  little  north  of  L 


DIRECTIONS  FOR  DRAWING  ASIA.. 


Diagram. — Draw  the  vertical  line  A  B  a  little 
more  than  one-half  the  length  desired  for  the  map, 
north  and  south.  Divide  it  into  three  equal  parts, 
and  the  upper  third  into  two  parts.  From  the 
point  B  draw  the  horizontal  line  B  C  one  and  oite- 
sixth  times  the  length  of  A  B.  Bisect  it,  and  con- 
nect A  and  C.  Trisect  A  C,  then  bisect  the  middle 
division  and  trisect  the  upper.  With  the  pointi 
A  and  C  as  centres,  and  with  a  radius  equal  to  one 
and  two-thirds  times  the  first  line,  draw  arcs  to 
intersect  at  D,  and  connect  A  and  D,  and  C  and  D. 
Trisect  A  B  and  bisect  the  middle  division. 
Divide  the  line  C  D  into  four  equal  parts,  and 
bisect  both  of  the  extreme  divisions.  Draw  the 
lines  E  P  and  N  L  and  bisect  them ;  also  one  from 
0  to  K  and  trisect  it  From  the  lower  trisecting 
point  on  the  line  0  K  draw  a  line  toward  J  till  it 
meets  the  line  R  L.  The  distance  measured  by 
the  line  A  C  is  5,300  miles. 

Nap.— In  drawing  the  map  commence  at  East  Cape  ai>d 
draw  in  order  the  eastern,  southern,  and  western  boua- 
daries,  including  the  Black  Sea ;  then  commence  again  at 
East  Cape  and  finish  the  oudine.  The  shore  of  Kam. 
chatki  crosses  at  the  first  division  on  the  Une  DC;  the 
soutl  era  shot  1  of  tho  Sea  of  Ochotsk  is  at  0 ;  the  Yellow 
Sea  is  near  the  centre  of  the  line  at  H ;  the  Gulf  of  Tonquin 
is  at  I ;  and  the  Gulf  of  Siam  Is  near  the  last  divition.  If 
we  suppose  a  .me  drawn  from  this  division-point  parallel 
with  the  line  A  C,  it  will  assist  in  determining  the  position 
of  the  Gulf  of  Siam  and  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  Cape 
Romania  coincides  with  the  angle  at  C,  and  Cape  Como- 
rin  with  the  lower  division  on  the  line  O  B.  The  head  of 
the  Persian  Gulf  is  near  the  centre  of  the  triangle  A  II  L. 
The  Strait  of  Bab-el-Mandeb  is  at  I ;  the  Isthmus  of  Sues 
between  A  and  H ;  and  the  Strait  of  Bosphorus,  at  A.  The 
Black  Sea  extends  as  far  cast  as  the  fint  division  on  the 
line  A  C,  and  the  Caspian  Sea  touches  this  line  at  the 
second  division.  The  position  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  the  Ural 
River,  and  Ural  Mounuins  is  determined  by  the  line  ■  0. 


184 


Maine. — The  first  line  from  i  to  2  is  75  miles  long.  Its  ' 
inclination  is  found  by  trisecting  a  quadrant,  as  shown  in 
the  figure.  The  boundary  from  2  to  3  is  equal  to  the  first 
line,  and  the  point  3  is  opposite  the  upper  trisecting  point 
of  the  first  line.  The  distances  from  3  to  4  and  from  4  to 
5  are  each  equal  to  the  first  line.  The  direction  of  the  St. 
Croix  River  coincides  closely  with  a  line  drawn  from  2 
through  4.  The  boundary  from  i  to  6  is  one  and  one-fourth 
times  the  first  line  and  extends  in  nearly  the  same  direc- 
tion. From  6  to  7  is  one  and  one-half  times  the  first  line. 
Ihe  boundary  formed  by  the  Piscataqua  River  is  one-half 
the  first  line.  Thus  the  whole  distance  from  6  to  8  is 
two  times  the  first  line.  Points  5  and  8  are  joined  by  the 
irregular  Atlantic  coast-line,  slightly  curved  inward. 

New  Hampshire. — The  first  line  from  1  to  2  is  112 
miles  long,  or  one  and  one-half  times  the  first  line  of 
Maine.  From  2  to  3  is  one-half  the  first  line,  and  the 
point  3  is  a  little  west  of  the  first  line  extended.  The 
boundary  from  2  to  3  is  formed  by  the  Piscataqua  River, 
the  Atlantic  coast-line  and  the  irregular  boundary  extend- 
ing parallel  with  the  Merrimac  River.  Point  4  is  east  of 
the  first  line  extended  and  about  equally  distant  from  2 
and  3.  From  3  to  5  is  one-half  of  the  first  line.  Points  1 
and  5  are  connected  by  the  Connecticut  River. 

Vermont. — The  first  line  from  i  to  2  is  75  miles  long. 
From  I  to  3  is  two  times  the  first  line.  Two-thirds  of  this 
boundary  is  formed  by  Lake  Champlain.  From  3  to  4  is 
one-half  the  first  line.  Points  2  and  4  are  joined  by  the 
Connecticut  River.     Point  3  is  a  little  west  of  point  i. 


Massachusetts. — The  first  line  from  i  to  2  is  100  miles 
long.  From  i  to  3  is  one-half  of  the  first  line.  The 
eastern  extremity  of  the  southern  boundary  at  4  is  di- 
rectly south  of  2.  The  distances  from  2  to  5,  from  4  to  6, 
from  6  to  7,  and  from  6  to  8,  are  each  one-third  of  the 
first  line.  The  bay  on  which  Boston  is  situated,  is  mid- 
way between  points  4  and  5. 

Rhode  Island. — The  first  line  from  i  to  2  is  22  miles 
long.  From  i  to  3  is  two  times  the  first  line,  and  from  3 
to  4  is  one  and  one-half  times  the  first  line. 

Connecticut. — The  first  line  from  i  to  2  is  88  miles 
long,  or  four-fifths  the  length  of  the  southern  straight 
boundary  of  Massachusetts.  From  2  to  3  is  one-half  the 
first  line.  From  i  to  4  is  about  three-fourths  of  the  first 
line.  Points  3  and  4  are  joined  by  the  coast-line  slightly 
curved  inward. 

New  York.  -The  first  line  of  New  York  is  Lake 
Champlain.  Its  length  is  100  miles.  From  2  to  3,  from 
3  to  4,  and  from  3  to  5  are  each  equal  to  the  first  line. 
The  northern  boundary  of  Massachusetts  is  midway  be- 
tween 2  and  3.  From  5  to  6  is  two  and  one-fourth  times 
the  first  line  and  is  in  line  with  the  southern  boundary  of 
Massachusetts.  From  6  to  7,  and  from  7  to  8  are  each 
one-half  of  first  line.  Lake  Ontario  extends  as  far  west 
as  the  State;  its  eastern  shore  is  midway  between  Niagara 
River  and  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  State,  and  the 
distance  between  the  southern  shore  and  the  southern 
boundary  of  the  State  is  three-fourths  of  the  first  line. 
The  width  of  I^ake  Ontario  is  one-half  the  first  line.  From 
g  to  I  is  three-fourths  of  the  first  line. 


New  Jersey. — The  first  line  from  I  to  2  is  50  miles 
long.  The  vertical  line  from  i  to  3  is  three  and  one-half 
times  the  first  line.  This  line  is  bisected  at  4,  which  marks 
the  position  of  an  important  bend  in  the  Delaware  River. 
The  northern  bend  of  the  Delaware  River  is  about  one- 
half  the  length  of  the  first  line,  west  of  the  vertical 
line,  and  the  southern  bend  is  nearly  twice  as  far  west  as 
the  northern.  Point  3  marks  the  position  of  Cape  May. 
Points  2  and  3  are  connected  by  the  Hudson  River 
and  the  Atlantic  coast,  slightly  curved  outward. 

Pennsylvania. — From  i  to  2  is  the  first  line.  Its  length 
is  225  miles.  This  is  trisected,  and  the  distance  from  i 
to  5  is  one-half  the  distance  from  i  to  3.  From  i  to  6  is 
one-half  the  distance  from  i  to  5.  From  5  to  7  is  two- 
thirds  of  the  first  line,  and  the  eastern  extremity  of  the 
southern  boundary  at  8  is  directly  south  of  2.  The  eastern 
boundary,  formed  by  the  Delaware  River,  is  in  the  form 
of  a  W,  turned  thus  ^  . 

Delaware,  Maryland,  Virginia,  and  West  Vir§inia. 

From  1  to  2  is  440  miles.  It  is  divided  into  four  equal 
parts.  From  2  to  6  a  vertical  line  is  drawn  one-half  the 
length  of  the  first  line.  From  6  to  7  is  five-eights  of  the 
first  line,  or  the  point  7  is  vertically  over  a  point  midway 
between  3  and  4.  The  line  from  6  to  7  is  divided  into 
four  equal  parts.  From  7  to  13  is  equal  to,  and  from  8  to 
9  is  one-half  the  distance  from  7  to  8.  From  6  to  10  is 
one-half  the  distance  from  6  to  8  and  from  10  to  ii  is 
one-third  the  distance  from  6  to  10.  From  11  to  I  a  is 
equal  to  the  distance  from  6  to  10. 


185 


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MAP  OP  THE 

SOrTHERN  STATES. 

Br  E.  A.  A  A.  C.  Apgar. 

Sola  of  St«tate3Iilw. 
»      »i      I»      im     la     no     178     W1     gs     « 


DIRECTIONS  FOR  DRAWING  THE  GROUP. 

Note. — ^Aftcr  the  pupils  have  learned  to  draw  the  above 
States  singly,  according  to  the  directions  given  below,  they 
should  be  taught  to  draw  the  group. 

In  grouping,  draw  in  the  following  order:  i.  North  Caro- 
lina; 3,  Tennessee;  3,  Mississippi ;  4,  Alabama;  5,  Georgia; 
6,  South  Carolina ;  7,  Florida ;  8,  Louisiana ;  and  9,  Arkansas. 

The  northern  boundary  of  Tennessee  is  one-third  longer 
than  the  first  line  of  North  Carolina.  The  northern  boundary 
of  Mississippi  is  one-third  of  the  southern  boundary  of  Tennes- 
see, and  the  northern  boundary  of  Alabama  is  two-thirds  of 
the  remaining  portion  of  the  southern  boundary  of  Tennessee. 

The  southern  boundary  of  Mississippi,  from  5  to  6,  consti- 
tutes the  first  line  for  Louisiana.  The  northern  boundary  of 
Louisiana  bisects  the  western  boundary  of  Mississippi.  The 
northern  boundary  of  Ark,  is  in  line  with  the  northern  boun- 
dary of  Tenn. ,  and  its  length  is  equal  to  the  width  of  the  Sute. 


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123  Uilsi  to  u  Ineh. 


DIRECTIONS  FOR  DRAWING. 

North  Carolina. — The  first  line  from  I  to  a  is  330 
miles  long,  or  three-fourths  of  the  southern  boundary  of 
Virginia.  This  line  is  trisected  at  3  and  4.  From  3  to 
5,  from  5  to  6,  and  from  3  to  7,  are  each  one-third  of  first 
line,  and  the  point  6  is  south-east  of  the  point  5.  From 
5  to  the  western  extremity  of  the  State,  at  8,  is  live-sixths 
of  first  line,  or  two  and  one-half  times  the  third  of  first  line. 

South  Carolina. — The  first  line  from  i  to  a  is  200 
miles  long.  It  is  trisected  at  3  and  4.  From  4,  the 
right-hand  trisecting  point,  to  the  southern  extremity  of 
the  State,  at  5,  is  nearly  equal  to  first  line,  and  from  a  to 
■  6  is  one-half  of  first  line  in  a  south-east  direction. 
Points  6  and  5  are  connected  by  the  coast,  and  l  and  5 
by  the  Savannah  River. 

fieorgla. — The  first  line  from  i  to  a  is  150  miles. 
The  western  boundary  from  i  to  3,  the  Ixiundary  formed 
by  the  Chattahoochee  River  from  3  to  4,  and  the  southern 
boundary  from  4  to  s,  are  each  equal  to  first  line.  The 
St.  Mary's  River,  from  5  to  6,  is  one-third  of  first  line, 
and  the  coast,  from  6  to  7,  i«  two-thirds  of  first  line. 
Points  3  and  7  are  connected  l>y  the  Savannah  River. 


Alabama. — The  first  line  frotn-i  to  3  is  150  miles 
long.  From  a  to  3  b  equal  to,  and  from  3  to  4  is  nearly 
equal  to  first  line.  From  4  to  5  is  equal  to  first  line. 
From  5  to  6,  and  from  6  to  7  are  each  one-third  of  first 
line.  The  line  from  i  to  7,  which  forms  the  western 
boundary,  has  a  small  angle  at  its  lower  trisecting  point. 

Florida. — The  first  line  is  150  miles  long.  From  a 
to  3  is  one-sixth  of  first  line,  and  from  3  to  4  is  equal  to 
first  line.  The  St.  Mary's  River,  from  4  to  5,  is  one-third  of 
first  line.  From  the  mouth  of  St.  Mary's  River  a  line  is 
drawn  towards  the  south,  two  and  one-half  times  first  line, 
which  determines  the  southern  limit  of  the  State.  From 
0  to  7  is  equal  to  first  line,  and  at  7  a  horizontal  line  is 
drawn,  equal  to  first  line  in  length,  and  extending  equal 
distances  east  and  west  of  the  vertical  line.  From  a  to  10  is 
two-thirds,  and  from  I  to  11  is  one-third  of  the  first  line. 

MittiMippi. — The  first  line  is  1 10  miles  long.  From 
a  to  3  is  three  times  first  line ;  from  3  to  4  is  a  little  more 
than  one-half  of  first  line,  and  from  4  to  5  is  one-half 
of  first  line.  From  5  to  6  is  equal  to  first  line.  The  Mis- 
sissippi River  forms  small  angles  at  its  trisecting  points, 
where  it  receives  the  waters  of  the  Arkansas  and  Yazoo. 


Louisiana. — The  first  line  from  i  to  a  is  no  miles,  or 
the  same  in  length  as  the  first  line  of  Mississippi. 
From  I  to  3  is  one  and  one-fourth  times  first  line,  and 
the  point  3  is  one-fourth  of  first  line  east  of  the  point  z. 
From  3  to  4  is  one  and  one-half  times  first  line.     From 

4  to  s  is  one-half  of  first  line,  and  the  Sabine  River,  from 

5  to  6,  is  one  and  one-half  times  first  line, — making  the 
entire  western  boundary  two  limes  first  line.  From  a  to  7, 
from  I  to  8,  and  from  I  to  g,  are  each  equal  to  first  line. 

Arlcansas.— Tlie  first  line  from  i  to  a  is  250  miles 
long.  From  a  to  3  and  from  3  to  4  are  each  equal  to 
one-sixth  of  first  line.  Tlie  width  of  the  State,  from  I  to 
S,  is  equal  to  first  line.  From  5  to  6  is  two-thirds  of  first 
line. 

Tennessee. — The  northern  boimdary,  or  first  line,  is 
440  miles  long,  or  the  same  as  the  southern  boundary  of 
Virginia.  The  width  of  the  State,  from  i  to  3,  is  one- 
fourth  of  first  line,  and  the  southern  boundary,  from  3  to 
4,  is  three-fourths  of  first  line. 

Note. — It  will  be  observed  that  the  first  lines  of  Georgia  Ala- 
bama  and  Florida  arc  equ;il  in  length.  The  fint  lines  of  Mississippi 
and  L.ouisiana  arc  also  equal. 


136 


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MAP  OF  THE 

CENTRAL  STATES. 

By  JS.  A.  &  A.  C.  Apgar. 


Scale  of  Statute  Uiles. 
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DIRECTIONS  FOR  DRAWING. 


Michigan  and  Wisconsin.— The  first  line  is  the  southern  boundary 
of  Wisconsin.  It  is  150  miles  long.  From  b  to  c  is  one-third  of  the  first 
line ;  from  c  to  d  is  equal  to  the  first  line,  and  from  d  to  e  is  one-half 
of  the  first  line. 

From  a,  b  and  d  vertical  lines  are  drawn.  The  middle  one  is  three 
times,  and  each  of  the  others  two  times  the  length  of  tlte  first  line. 

The  distance  from  the  right-hand  vertical  line  to  the  St.  Clair  River  is 
three-fourths  of  the  first  line,  and  to  the  eastern  shore  of  Lake  Htiron 
at  p  it  is  equal  to  the  first  line.  To  the  right  of  f  is  Saginaw  Bay, 
and  at  g  is  the  projeetion  of  land  between  River  St  Marie  and 
Mackinaw  Strait. 

At  h  is  Green  Bay,  at  \  the  southern  shore  of  Lake  Superior,  and 
at  k  the  northern  shore.  Keweenaw  Point  touches  this  vertical  line. 
At  m  is  Point  Detour,  and  the  distance  from  m  to  n  is  one-half  of 
the  first  line.  The  junction  of  the  St  Croix  with  the  Mississippi  at  O  is 
west  of  1  a  distance  equal  to  two-thirds  of  the  first  line. 

Illinois. — The  first  line  from  z  to  a  is  150  miles  long.  From  2  to  3 
is  one-third  of  the  first  line,  and  from  3  to  4  is  one  and  one-sixth  times 
the  first  line  The  lines  from  i  to  2  and  from  3  to  4  are  each  bisected. 
The  length  of  the  StaCe^fromj  to  6,  is  two  and  one-third  times  the  first 


line,  and  the  width,  from  7  to  8,  is  one  and  one-third  times  the  first  line. 
Two-thirds  of  the  boundary,  from  4  to  6,  is  formed  by  the  Wabash 
River,  and  the  remaining  third  by  the  Ohio. 

Indiana. — The  first  line,  from  x  to  a,  is  150  miles  long,  one-thir-l 
of  which  is  formed  by  Lake  Michigan.  The  eastern  boundary,  from  3 
to  3,  is  one  and  one-third  times  the  first  line,  and  the  western  boundary, 
from  I  to  4,  is  one  and  one-sixth  times  the  first  line.  The  boundary 
formed  by  the  Wabash  River,  from  4  to  5,  is  two-thirds  of  the  first 
line.     Points  3  and  5  are  joined  by  the  Ohio  River. 

Ohio. — The  first  line,  from  i  to  2,  is  220  miles  long.  It  is  trisected 
at  3  and  4,  and  the  right-hand  division  is  bisected  at  5.  That  por- 
tion of  the  northern  boundary  extending  from  3  to  5  is  formed  by 
Lake  Erie.  The  distance  from  3  to  6  is  one-half  the  distance  from  3 
to  5.  From  3  to  7  is  one-third  of  the  first  line,  and  the  western  boun- 
dary, from  X  to  8,  is  five-sixths  of  the  first  line,  or  equal  to  the  dis- 
tance from  X  to  5,  Point  g  is  south  of  the  right-hand  trisecting  point 
of  the  first  line  at  4,  and  the  distance  from  4  to  g  is  equal  to  the  first 
line.     Points  7,  g  and  8  serve  as  guides  for  drawing  the  Ohio  River. 

Kentucky. — The  first  line,  from  i  to  3,  is  330  miles  long,  or  equal 
to  the  first  line  of  North  Carolina.  This  line  is  trisected  at  3  and  4, 
and  the  right-hand  division  is  bisected  at  5.  This  first  line  ts  now 
extended  to  6,  a  distance  equal  to  one-sixth  of  its  own  length.  From 
6  to  7  is  one-third,  from  5  to  8  is  one-half,  and  from  3  to  g  is  one- 


quarter  of  the  first  line.    Points  7, 8,  g  and  x  serve  as  guides  for  draw, 
ing  the  Ohio  River. 

Missouri.— The  first  line,  from  i  to  3,  is  aSo  miles  long.  From  a 
to  3  and  from  3  to  4  are  each  one-eighth  of  the  first  line.  The  width  of 
the  State  is  equal  to  the  first  line,  and  the  eastern  extremity  of  the 
northern  boundary  at  5  is  a  little  east  of  the  centre  of  the  first  line. 
The  northern  boundary,  from  5  to  6,  is  three-fourths  of  the  first  line. 
The  western  boundary,  from  i  to  7,  is  two-thirds  of  the  width  of  the 
State.  The  bend  of  the  Mississippi  River,  where  it  receives  the 
waters  of  the  Missouri,  is  midway  between  3  and  5. 

Iowa. — The  first  line  from  i  to  2  is  210  miles  long,  or  three-fourths 
the  length  of  the  first  line  of  Missouri.  The  width  of  the  State  is 
equal  to  the  first  line.  The  northern  boundary,  from  3  to  4,  is  one  and 
one-third  times  the  first  line,  and  it  extends  the  same  distance  east  and 
west  of  the  extremities  of  the  southern  boundary.  One-third  of  the 
western  boundary  is  formed  by  the  Big  Sioux  River,  and  two-thirds 
by  the  Missouri.  The  great  bend  of  the  Mississippi  River  at  5  is 
midway  between  3  and  4. 

Minnesota.— The  first  line  from  I  to  a  is  380  miles  long,  or  equal  to 
the  first  line  of  Missouri.  From  x  103  isone-half  of  the  first  line,  and 
the  boundary  formed  by  the  Red  River  of  the  North  is  nearly  equal 
to  the  first  line.  From  4  to  5  is  one-third  of  the  first  line,  and  from  5  to 
6  is  equal  to  the  distance  from  3  to  4.  Point  7  bisects  the  distance 
from  5  to  6^  and  the  distance  from  7  to  8  is  one-half  of  the  first  line. 


(138) 


GEOGRAPHICAL   AND   STATISTICAL  TABLES. 

A  considerable  part  of  the  matter  usually  found  in  Statistical  Tables  has  in  this  book  been  incorporated  in  the  tert  and  in  the  various  Topical  Reviews. 

The  following  Tables  are  supplementary. 


TABLE    I. 

Dimensions  of  the  Eartn,. 

Polar  Diameter 7,899.17  mUes. 

Equatorial  Uiaineter 7,925.66     " 

Equatorial  Circumference  24,899.00     " 

Superficial  Area    196,861,755  aq.  miles. 

TABLE    II. 

Length  of  a  Degree  of  Longitude  on  each  parallel  of 
Latitude  from  the  Equator  to  the  North  Pole. 


Deu.  of 
Lat. 

No.  of  Miles 
in  one  Deg. 

Deg.  of 
Lat. 

No.  of  Miles 
in  one  Deg. 

Deg.  of 

Lat. 

No.  of  Miles 
in  one  L)eg. 

of  Long. 

of  Long. 

of  Long. 

Equa.0 

69.16 

80 

69.96 

60 

34.67 

1 

69.15 

81 

59.33 

61 

33.62 

2 

69.12 

32 

58.71 

62 

82.66 

3 

69.07 

33 

68.07 

63 

31.48 

4 

69.00 

34 

67.40 

64 

30.40 

6 

68.90 

35 

56.71 

66 

29.81 

6 

68.79 

36 

56.02 

66 

28.21 

7 

68.05 

37 

55.31 

67 

27.10 

8 

68.50 

38 

54.57 

68 

25.99 

9 

68.32 

39 

53.82 

69 

24.86 

10 

68.12 

40 

5305 

70 

23.73 

11 

67.90 

41 

52.27 

71 

22.58 

12 

67.66 

42 

51.48 

72 

21.44 

13 

67.40 

43 

60.66 

73 

20.28 

14 

67.12 

44 

49.83 

74 

19.12 

15 

66.82 

46 

48.98 

76 

17.96 

16 

66.60 

46 

48.12 

76 

1678 

17 

66.16 

47 

47.25 

77 

16.61 

18 

65.80 

48 

4636 

78 

1443 

19 

65.42 

49 

45.46 

79 

13.24 

20 

65.01 

60 

4466 

80 

1206 

21 

64.59 

61 

43.61 

81 

10.86 

22 

64.16 

52 

42.97 

82 

9.66 

23 

63.70 

53 

41.71 

83 

8.46 

24 

63.22 

64 

40.74 

84 

7.25 

25 

02.72 

65 

39.76 

88 

6.05 

26 

62.20 

66 

38.77 

86 

4.84 

27 

61.67 

57 

37.76 

87 

3,63 

28 

61.11 

68 

36.74 

88 

2.42 

29 

60.64 

59 

36.71 

89 
90 

1.21 
0.00 

TABLE    m. 

Heights  of  Principal  Mountains. 

North  America. 

1.   Northern  Coa^t  Mountains. 

Feet. 

Mount  St.  Elias  (Dall)  19,283 

"  (Maleapina) 17,854 

(Eng.  Hydrog.  Charts)   14,970 

"  (La  Perouse)  12,661 

2.   Sierra  NevcuUi  and  Cascade  Range. 

Mount  Whitney 14,887 

Mount  Rainier  14,444 

Mount  Shasta 14,440 

Mount  Tyndall 14,386 

Mount  Dana 13,277 

Mount  Hood 11,225 

3.  RoiUcy  Mountains. 

Uncohpahqre  Peak 14,540 

Mount  Harvard 14,384 

Gray's  Peak 14,341 

Mount  Lincoln  14.297 

Long's  Peak 14,271 

Pike's  Peak 14,147 

South  America. 

Andes. 

•Illampu 24,812 

*illimani 24,155 

•Aconcaoda 23,421 

tupanoati  22,015 

Chimborazo  21,424 

Nevada  de  Sorata 21,290 

Nevada  de  Cayambe 19,535 

*  These  are  the  results  of  offlcial  surveys.     Aconcagua  is  prob- 
ably the  best  determined  point  in  South  America. 


Antisana    19,187 

Cotopaxi    18,875 

Tdnouakagua  16,424 

PiCHINCHA  16,924 

Gnrope. 

Elbruz  (highest  of  Caucasus  Mountains)    18,626 

Blanc  (Alps) 16,784 

Kosa(Alps) 15,223 

Finstkraar-horn  (Alps) 14,039 

Highest  op  Pyrenees 11,200 

Mount  Etna  Sicily  (volcano) 10,874 

Mount  Olympus,  Greece 8,200 

Mount  Vesuvius,  Italy  (volcano) 3,948 

Africa. 

Killimandjaro,  Central  Africa. 20,000 

Teneriffe,  Canary  Islands  12,182 

Atlas  Mountains  (highest) 11,400 

Mountains  or  Abyssinia  (highest)  10,000 

Kenia,  Central  Africa 18,000 

Asia. 

Everest,  Himalaya  Mountains  (highest  in  the  world)29,100 

KANCUiNoiNiiA    Himalaya  Moun-tains 28,156 

Dhawalagiri,  Himalaya  Mountains 26,826 

Hindoo  Koosh  Mountains  (highest)  20,000 

Ararat,  Armenia 17,200 

Fu3i  Yama,  Japan  14,000 

Islands. 

Mauna  Loa,  Sandwich  Islands 14,000 

Ophir,  Sumatra  13,842 

Owen  Stanley,  Papua 13,205 

Semero,  Java   12,000 

Eomont,  New  Zealand  8,840 

Australian  Alps  (highest) 7,600 

Kilauea,  Sandwich  Islands  (crat«r) 6,000 


TABLE    IV. 

Area  of  the  Basins  and  Length  of  the  Principal  Rivers 
of  each  Orand  Division. 


Xame 

Area  of  Basin. 

Length. 

North  America. 

sq*  miles. 

1,244,000 
590,000 
480,000 
478,000 
200.000 
298,000 
257,000 

2,776,000 

1,242,000 

340,000 

250,000 

600,000 
311,000 
170,000 
168,000 
107,000 
66,000 

1,040,000 
950,000 

1,250,000 
800,000 
786,000 
450,000 
400,000 
260,000 
416,000 
140,000 

1,425,000 
800,000 
900,000 

600,000 

Eng.  miles. 
4,200 
2,300 
2,000 
1,900 
1,600 
1,020 
1,000 

3,750 
2,300 
1,660 
1,550 

2,400 
1,800 
1,080 

960 

864 

600 

3,400 
3,820 
3,000 
2,700 
2,650 
2,300 
1,850 
1,760 
1.600 
1,200 

4,000 
3,000 
1,600 

1,500 

Mackenzie  

St.  Lawrence 

Saskatchewan 

Yukon : 

Columbia 

Colorado  

South  America. 

Amazon  

Plata  

Europe. 

Volga. 

Dnieper  

Don                                         

Rhine  

Asia. 

Yang-tae-kiang 

,     Obi 

Lena 

Brahmapootra  

Euphrates 

Ganges.. 

Irawaddy  

Africa. 

Nile                            

Niger 

Zambezi 

Australia. 

TABLE    V. 

Area  of  the  Principal  Lakes  of  the  World,  and  their 
Altitude  and  Depth. 


Name. 

Area. 

Altitude. 

Depth. 

Old  World. 

sq.  miles. 

Feet. 

Feel. 

Caspian  Sea,  Asia 

132,000 

-83 

2,700 

Victoria  Nyanza,  Africa 

28,000 

4,300 

Aral,  Asia    

26,400 

36 

200 

A  Ibert  Nyanza,  Africa    

26,000 

2,700 

Baikal,  Asia   

16,200 

1,280 

3,000 

Tchad,  Africa 

16,000 

800 

Tanganyika,  Africa  

13,000 

2,800 

Nyaasa,  Africa  

8,000 

1,300 

Ladoga,  Russia 

6,900 

50 

Balkhash,  Asia 

6.400 

600 

60 

Baiigweolo,  Africa    

5,000 

4,000 

Onega,  Europe  

4,900 

237 

Eyre,  Australia 

3,000 

70 

Gairdner,  Australia 

2,400 

366 

Wener,  Europe  

2,300 

143 

Urumiali,  Asia  

1,700 

4,360 

50 

Wetter,  Europe 

Dead  Sea,  Asia  

800 

289 

400 

500 

-1,286 

1,300 

Geneva,  Europe 

240 

1,2'36 

980 

Constance,  Europe  

190 

1,263 

1,027 

New  World.       '^ 

Superior,  N.  America 

31,400 

600 

1,200 

Michigan,  N.  America 

26,600 

674 

1,000 

Huron,  N.  America 

■  23,800 

674 

1,000 

Erie,  N.  America 

10,000 

665 

80 

Great  Bear,  N.  America 

9,300 

230 

Winnipeg,  N.  America 

8,900 

628 

Ontario,  N.  America   

7,300 

235 

600 

Maracaybo,  S.  America  

5,800 

0 

Nicaragua,  Central  America 

8,500 

128 

Titicaca,  8.  America 

3,500 

12,850 

700 

Great  Salt  Lake,  N.  America 

3,200 

4,200 

Athabaaka,  N.  America 

3,200 

600 

Nipigon,  N.  America  

1,650 

913 

600 

Chapahi,  N.  America  

1,360 

2,824 

Tulare,  N.  America 

700 

500 

Cham  plain,  N.  America 

.667 

93 

280 

St  John,  N.  America 

600 

300 

L.  of  the  Woods.  N.  America 

600 

977 

Moosehead,  N.  America 

300 

1,070 

Tahoe,  N.  America  

260 

6,300 

1,700 

TABLE    VL 

Altitude  of  the  Highest  Inhabited  Places  and  Cities. 

Feat. 

Haule,  Thibet  16,117 

Pasco,  Peru  14,0»8 

Potosi,  Bolivia 18,880 

La  Paz,  Bolivia 12,228 

Cuzco,  Peru ..• 11,600 

Quito,  Ecuador ':..:.i., 9,620 

Bogota,  Columbia --»*.     8,666 

Shennan,  Wy  Ter.  8,000 

St.  Bernard,  Alps 7.965 

Mexico.  Mexico ; 7,473 

Aurora,  Nev.  Ter. -7,446 

Virginia  City,  Nevada •  •••  6,300 

Truekee,  California "i*** 

Salt  Lake  City,  Utah  Ter 4,200 

TABLE    Vn. 

Areas  of  the   Oceans   with   their  adjacent   Seas,   in 
Enqlish  square  Miles. 

Sq.  Miles. 

Pacific  Ocean e*,-6SO,000 

Atlantic    "     "•■■•    34,780,000 

Indian       '■     '■ •.^•.•■■- 30,590,000 

Arctic       "     ,-■• 6,930,000 

Antarctic"     ■■■■ 4.940,000 

Total  of  the  Ocean  and  its  blanches. 142,570,000 


(18»> 


REFERENCE   TABLE    OF    POPULATION. 


CITIES,  TOWNS,  VILLAGES,  BOROUGHS,  ETC.,  HAVING  A  POPULATION  OF  OVER  10,000  BY  THE  CENSUS  OF  1880. 


POPULATION. 


POPULATION. 


POPULATION. 


Akron,  0 16,512 

Albany,  N.Y 90,758 

Alexandria,  Va- iSi^SQ 

Allegheny,  Penn 78,682 

AUentown,  Penn. 18,063 

Altoona,  Penn 19,710 

Atchison,  Kan i5>io; 

Atlanta,  Ga. 37,409 

Attleborough,  Mass 1 1,1 11 

Auburn,  N.Y 21,924 

Augusta,  Ga. 21,891 

Aurora,  III 11,873 

Austin,  Tex. 10,960 

Baltimore,  Md. 332.313 

Bangor,  Me 10,856 

Bay  City,  Mich.     .....  20,693 

Belleville,  111 10,683 

Biddeford,  Me 12,651 

Binghamton,  N.Y.      .    .    .  17,317 

Bloomington,  III 17,180 

Boston,  Mass 362,839 

Bridgeport,  Conn 27,643 

Brockton,  Mass.    .         ...  13,608 

Brooklyn,  N.Y 566,663 

Buffalo,  N.Y 155.134 

Burlington,  lo 19,450 

Burlington,  Vt. .    .....  11,364 

Cambridge,  Mass.      ....  52,669 

Camden,  N.J 41.659 

Canton,  0 12,258 

Cedar  Rapids,  lo. 10,104 

Charleston,  S.C 49.984 

Chattanooga,  Tenn 12,892 

Chelsea,  Mass. 21,782 

Chester,  Penn 14,997 

Chicago,  III 503,185 

Chicopee,  Mass. 11.325 

Chilicothe,  0 10,938 

Cincinnati,  0 255,139 

Cleveland,  O. 160,146 

Cohoes,  N.Y 19,416 

Columbia,  S.C 10,036 

Columbus,  0 51,647 

Concord,  N.H 13^43 

Council  Bluffs,  lo 18,059 

Covington,  Ky 29,720 

Cumberland,  Md. 10,693 

Dallas,  Tex. 10,358 

Danbury,  Conn. 11,666 

Davenport,  lo 21,831 

Dayton,  0 38,678 

Denver,  Col 35.629 

Derby,  Conn 11,650 

Des  Moines,  lo 22,408 

Detroit,  Mich. 116,340 

Dover,  N.H 11,687 

Dubuque,  lo. 22,254 

Easton,  Penn. 11,924 

East  Saginaw,  Mich 19,016 


Eau  Claire,  Wis. 10,119 

Elizabeth,  N.J 28,229 

Elmira,  N.Y 20,541 

Erie,  Penn 27,737 

Evansville,  Ind 29,280 

Fall  River,  Mass. 48,961 

Fitchburg,  Mass 12,429 

Fond-du-Lac,  Wis 13,094 

Fort  Wayne,  Ind. 26,880 

Galesburg,  111 1 1 437 

Galveston,  Tex. 22,248 

Georgetown,  D.C 12,578 

Gloucester,  Mass 19.329 

Grand  Rapids,  Mich.     .    .    .  32,016 

Hamilton,  0 12,122 

Hannibal,  Mo 11,074 

Harrisburgh,  Penn 30,762 

Hartford,  Conn.    .         ...  42,015 

Haverhill,  Mass. 18,472 

Hoboken,  N.J 30,999 

Holyoke,  Mass 21,915 

Houston,  Tex. 16,513 

Hyde  Park,  111 15,716 

Indianapolis,  Ind 75,056 

Jackson,  Mich 16,105 

Jacksonville,  III 10,927 

Jersey  City,  N.J 120,722 

Joliet,  III 16,145 

Kalamazoo,  Mich 11,937 

Kansas  City,  Mo. 55.7^5 

Keokuk,  lo 12,117 

Kingston,  N.Y 18,344 

La  Crosse,  Wis. 14,505 

Lafayette,  Ind 14,860 

Lancaster,  Penn 25,769 

Lawrence,  Mass 39,151 

Lcadville,  Col 14,820 

Leavenworth,  Kan 16,546 

Lewiston,  Me 19,083 

Lexington,  Ky 16,656 

Lincoln,  Neb 13.003 

Lincoln,  R.I 13.765 

Little  Rock,  Ark 13.138 

Lockport,  N.Y 13,522 

Logansport,  Ind. 11,198 

Long  Island  City,  N.Y.  .    .    .  17,129 

Los  Angeles,  Cal 11.183 

Louisville,  Ky 123,758 

Lowell,  Mass 59.475 

Lynchburg,  Va. 15.959 

Lynn,  Mass. 38,274 

Macon,  Ga. 12,749 

Madison,  Wis 10,324 

Maiden,  Mass 12,017 

Manchester,  N.H 32,630 


Marlborough,  Mass 10,126 

Memphis,  TenrL 33.592 

Meriden,  Conn 15.540 

Middletown,  Conn 1 1.732 

Milwaukee,  Wis 115.587 

Minneapolis,  Minn.    ....  46^87 

Mobile,  Ala. 29,132 

Montgomery,  Ala.      ....  16,713 

Muskegon,  Mich. 11,262 

Nashua,  N.H.  ......  13,397 

Nashville,  Tenn 43.350 

New  Albany,  Ind 16423 

Newark,  N.J 136,508 

New  Bedford,  Mass 26,845 

New  Brighton,  N.Y.  ....  12,679 

New  Britain,  Conn ii^oo 

New  Brunswick,  N.J.     .    .    .  17,166 

Newburgh,  N.Y 18,049 

Newburyport,  Mass '3>538 

New  Haven,  Conn 62,882 

New  London,  Conn.  ....  10,537 

New  Orleans,  La.      ....  216,090 

Newport,  Ky 20,433 

Newport,  R.I 15.693 

Newton,  Mass 16,995 

New  York,  N.Y 1,206,299 

Norfolk,  Va 21,966 

Norristown,  Penn 13.063 

North  Adams,  Mass.      .    .    .  10,192 

Northampton,  Mass 12,172 

Norwalk,  Conn 13.956 

Norwich,  Conn.     ....  15.112 

Oakland,  Cal 34.555 

Ogdensburgh,  N.Y 10,341 

Omaha,  Neb 30,518 

Orange,  N.J 13,207 

Oshkosh,  Wis 15,748 

Oswego,  N.Y 21,116 

Paterson,  N.J 51.031 

Pawtucket,  R.I 19,030 

Peoria,  III 29,259 

Petersburgh,  Va 21,656 

Philadelphia,  Pciin 847,170 

Pittsburg,  Penn 156,389 

Pittsfield,  Mass 13.367 

Portland,  Me 33,810 

Portland,  Ore 17,577 

Portsmouth,  0 11,321 

Portsmouth,  Va. 11.390 

Pottsville,  Penn 13.253 

Poughkeepsie,  N.Y 20,207 

Providence,  R.1 104.857 

Quincy,  111 27,268 

Quincy,  Mass. 10,529 

Racine,  Wis. 16,031 

Reading,  Penn. 43.278 

Richmond,  Ind. 12,742 

Richmond,  Va. 63,600 


Rochester,  N.Y 89,366 

Rockford,  III 13,129 

Rock  Island,  111 11.659 

Rome,  N.Y 12,194 

Sacramento,  Cal 21420 

Saginaw,  Mich. 10,525 

Salem,  Mass. 27,563 

Salt  Lake  City,  Utah     .    .    .  20,768 

San  Antonio,  Tex.      ....  20,550 

Sandusky,  0 15.838 

San  Francisco,  Cal 233,959 

Sanjos^,  Cal 12,567 

Savannah,  Ga.  ......  30,709 

Schenectady,  N.Y 13.655 

Scranton,  Penn 45.850 

Shenandoah,  Penn 10,147 

Somerville,  Mass 24,933 

South  Bend,  Ind 13,280 

Springfield,  III 19,743 

Springfield,  Mass. 33.340 

Springfield,  0 20,730 

Stamford,  Conn 11,209 

Steubenville,  0 12,093 

St.  Joseph,  Mo. 32431 

St.  Louis,  Mo. 350,518 

St.  Paul,  Minn. 41,473 

Stockton,  Cal 10,282 

Syracuse,  N.Y 51.792 

Taunton,  Mass 21,213 

Tcrre  Haute,  Ind 26,042 

Toledo,  O. 50,137 

Topeka,  Kan. 15.452 

Trenton,  N.J 29,910 

Troy,  N.Y 56,747 

Utica,  N.Y 33.914 

Vicksburg,  Miss. 11,814 

Virginia  City,  Nev 10,917 

Waltham,  Mass 11,711 

Warwick,  R.I 12,163 

Washington,  D.C 147.293 

Watcrbury,  Conn.      ....  17,806 

Watertown,  N.Y 10,697 

Weymouth,  Mass.      ....  10,571 

Wheeling,  W.  Va.      ....  30,737 

Wilkesbarre,  Penn 23,339 

Williamsport,  Penn 18,934 

Wilmington,  Del 42478 

Wilmington,  N.C 17.350 

Winona,  Minn 10,208 

Wobum,  Mass 10,931 

Woonsocket,  R.I 16,053 

Worcester,  Mass. 58,291 

Yonkers,  N.Y 18,892 

York,  Penn 13,940 

Youngstown,  O '5435 

Zancsville,  0 18,113 


PRONUNCIATION  OF  DIFFICULT  GEOGRAPHICAL  NAMES. 


J[^*  All  marks  used  to  indicate  pronunciation  are  the  same  as  are  employed  in  Webster's  Dictionary,  last  edition. 

Explanation  of  Marks,  —a,  6,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  &,  t-,  6,  less  prolonged ;  5,  C,  I,  o,  H,  y,  short;  care,  far,  laat,  fgU,  wh^it ;  there,  vfil,  term  ;  pique,  ftrm  ;  d(5ne,  for,  dn,  wglf,  foi>d,  f(5bt ;  furl,  rjide, 
pysh  ;  e,  V,  o,  silent ;  S,  sound  of  long  a  ;  o,  similar  to  c  in  her ;  ii,  like  the  French  u  ;  ee,  sound  of  i  in  spirit ;  ^  oj  s  ;  ph  (W  sh  ;  e,  ch,  as  k  ;  g  as  j  ;  g  as  in  get ;  g  as  z  ;  ^  as  gz  ;  u  as  tn  liuger,  liuk  ;  tii 
as  in  thine  ;  I,  itite  Ui  in  million ;  u,  like  ni  in  minion  ;  6,  neoriy  iiic  z;  D,  similar  to  th  in  this  j  G,  sourti/  o/"  German  ch  j  H,  strongly  aspirated  ;  K,  sou?k/  o/  German  ch  ;  M,  French  nasal  sound;  K,  /lAe 
rr  in  terror. 


Aachen,  H'Ken. 

Abaco,  a'ba-ko. 

Abbitibe,  ab-be-tib'bee. 

Abeokuta,  a-be-o-kH'ta. 

Ato'er-deeu'. 

Abomey,  ab'oma'. 

Abouklr,  a-boo-keer'. 

Abrantes,  a-briin^tes. 

Acapulco,  ii-ka-pool'ko. 

Acarai,  a-ca-rii'I. 

Ach-een'. 

Acoucagrua,  a-kon-ka'gwii. 

Acre,  a'ker,  or  a''ker. 

Aden,  a'den  ;  Arab.  pron.  a'den, 

Adige,a'de-je  ;  /r.pron.  ii'de-j& 

Ad'i-ron'dack. 

Adrianople,  ad'r!-an-o'p!. 

Adri-at'lc. 

JGgean  (Sea),  e-jee'au. 

Afgltanistan,  af-gan'is-tan'. 

Agades,  iig'a-des'. 

Agra,  a'gra. 

Aguilar,  a-ge-laa'. 

Agullia.8,  a-gool'yas. 

Aisne,  an,  or  6n. 

Alx-la-Cliapelle,  iiks-la- 

shii'-pel'. 
Ajaccio,  a-yiit'cho. 
Ak''ron. 
Alamo,  a^'la-mo. 
Albans,  H^'baug. 
Al'be-marle  (Kug.). 
Arbe-marle'{U.  S.). 
Albuquerque,  al-boo-k6R'k&, 

or  al'boo-kerk. 
Alcantara,  al-kan^tii-ra. 
Alen^on,  a-len'son  ;  Fr.  pron. 

^ii'loN'son'. 
A-lep'po. 

Aleutian,  a-lu^tuhi-an. 
Algarve,  al-gaR'T&. 
Al-gierg^ 

Alicante,  a-le-kau^tu. 
Alleghany,  ftl-le-ga/uT. 
Allegheny,  51-le-ga^nT. 
Allier,  ill-le-a'. 
AUnaden,  al-ma-nen'. 
Almeida,  al-ma'e-da. 
Alsace,  aI''B^8s'. 
Altai,  Jil-ti'. 

Altamaha,  awl^ta-ma-haw'. 
Alton,  al'ton. 
Am-boy'. 
Am-boy'na. 
Amiens,  am^I-enz ;    Fr.  pron. 

a'me'Ow'. 
Amite,  a-meet'. 
Aui'os-k€ag'. 
A-nftm'. 
An' da-man'. 
Andorra,  S-a-doa'aa. 
An'do-ver. 
An^'dros-cog'gln. 
Angleney ,  or  Anglesea,  ang' 

gl-se. 
An-go'la. 

Angostura,  iin-gos-too'rii. 
AngoulSme,  orc'goo'l&m^. 
An-ko'ber. 
Antigua,  an-tc'ga. 
Antilles,  an-teel^  or  5N'teel'. 
Apache,  ii-pa'chS. 
Ap'en-niiie^. 
Ap'pa-la'chi-an. 
Ap'pa-lacli'l-co'Ia. 
Ap'  po-  ni  at 't  ox . 
Araguay,  a-ril-gwl'. 
Ar'al. 

Archangel,  ark-an'jfil. 
Arequipa,  a-r&-kee'pa. 


Ardennes,  ar-d6n'. 
Ar'gen-tine. 

Argyle,  ar-gU'. 

Arlca,  a-re'ka. 

Arispe,  a-res'pa. 

Ar-kan'sas. 

Armagh,  ar-ma'. 

A-roos'tot>k. 

Arpino,  ar-pe'no. 

Ar'^ras. 

Artois,  aa'twa'. 

A'Shan'tee,  or  ABh'an-tee^ 

Ash'ta-bu'la- 

Asia,  a'shl-a,  often   improperly 

pronounced  a'zhi-a. 
As'pin-^vall. 
As-sam'. 
As-sin'ni-boin'. 
Asuncion,  a-s])n'se-0D. 
Atacama,  a-ta-ca'ma. 
Atbara,  at-ba'rii. 
Atchafalaya,  atch-af-a-lVa. 
Aube,  ob. 
Augg''burg. 
Augustine,  St-,  sent-aw'gus- 

teen'. 
Au  Sable,  o-sJl'bl. 
Auvergne,  o-v6rn,  or  5''vcRn''. 
Auxerre,  o-ser'. 
Avignon,  a'ven'yoN' 
Avon,  a'von. 
Az'of. 
Azores,  a-zorz',  or  a-zo'rez. 


B. 


BaVel-man'deb. 

Badajos,  bad-a-hus'. 

Baden,  ba'den,  or  bad'en. 

Bagd^id,  bag-diid',  or  bag'dad. 

Ba-ha'maiij. 

Bahia,  ba-e^a. 

Baikal,  bl'kal'. 

Baireuth,  bl'rjjth  ;    Ger.  pron. 

bi'roit. 
Balaton,  bH/law-tofi. 
Bal'e-&r'lc. 
Balize,  b3.-leez^ 
Balkan,  bal-kau^ 
Ban'g6r(U.  S.). 
Bangkok'. 

Barbadoes,  bar-bii'doz. 
Bar-ce-lo'na,  or  baR-th&-lo'na 
Barnaul,  baR-nowl'. 
Bar'ne-gat'. 
Barn'sta-ble. 
Basle,  bal. 

BHs'so-rah- 

Ba-tang^ 

Baton  Rouge,  bat'un  roozh. 

Bayonne,  ba'yoii'. 

Bayou  la  Fourche,  bl'oo  li 
fjjrsh. 

Beaufort  (British  Dominions), 
bo'furt. 

Beaufort  (8.  C),  bu'lurt. 

Berinfi^,  beer'ing. 

Bel-fast'  ( I  reland ). 

Bel'fa^t  (Maine). 

Bellefontaine  (France),  bel' 
foN'tlln'. 

Bellefontaine    (U.  S.),  bSl- 
fftn'tfin. 

Belle  Isle,  or  Bellisle,  bel-Tl'. 

Beloochistan,  bel-oo'cliis- 
tan'. 

Benares,  ben-'£L'rSs. 

Bengal,  ben-gawP. 

Ben-gii'zi. 

Benguela,  ben-ga'U. 

Benin,  ben-een'. 


BSr'lin;   G«r.  pron.  bgR-leen'. 

Ber-mu'daf. 

Bernard',  Saint- 
Berwick,  (Kiig.),  bfir'rik. 

Ber'wick(U.  S.). 

Besan^on,  b"z-5>'s6N'. 

Bexar  ;  Sp.  pron.  bi-Haft' ;  oft- 
en pron.  by  the  Texans^  beh- 
har',  or  bar. 

Biafra,  bT-5f/ra. 

Biloxi,  be-loks'T. 

Binghamton,  bing'um-tun. 

Birmingham,  bTr'miug-um. 

Blanc  (Mont),  moN  blON,  or 
Mount  Blayc. 

Blois,  bloi,  preferably  blwa. 

Bogota,  bo-go-t3'. 

Bois^,  bwa-za'. 

Bokhara,  bo-K^'ra. 

Bologna,  bo-16n'ya. 

Bom- bay'. 

Bonin,  bo-nen'. 

Bordeaux,  boR'do'. 

Borgne,  born. 

Bos'po-  rus- 

Boulogne,  boo-lon' ;  Fr.  pron. 
boo'lon. 

Bowdoiu,  bo'den. 

Brah'ma-poot'ra. 

Bra-zil' ;  Port.  pron.  hra-zeel '. 

Brazos,  bra/zos,  or  bra'soss. 

Brem'en,  or  brS'men  (Kurope). 

Breslau,  bres'law,  or  br68'lou. 

Breton  (Cape),  brit'Qn. 

Brludisi,  brin'de-^ee. 

Br^j'geg ;  Fr.  pron.  briizh. 

Bu'eha-rest'. 

Bu'da  ;  Hung.  pron.  boo'dflh' . 

Buenos  Ayres,  bo'nus  ft'riz  ; 
5;?.  pron.  Dwa'noss  I'tfis. 

B^r'gos. 
Bur'gun-dy. 
Bushire,  boo-sheer'. 
Butte,  but. 


CaVes. 

Ca-bool'. 

Caen,  kon. 

CagUari,  kal'ya-re. 

Caicos,  kl'kos. 

Cai'ro  (Egypt). 

Cai'ro{U.  S.). 

Calais,  kJil'iss  ;  Fr.  pron.  kS'Ia' 

Calcasieu,  kal'ka-sbu,  or  kUl' 

ka-sht}. 
Caldera,  k^Ll-da'r^. 
Calloa,  kal-la'o,  or  kal-ya'o. 
Calvi,  kai've. 
Canandaigua,  kajj'aa-da'- 

gwa. 
Can-ftv'e-ral. 
Can-ton'  (China). 
Cape  Girardeau,  je-rar-do'. 
Ca-rac'as- 

Cardenas,  kar'da'nas. 
Cftr'ib-be'an. 
Cftr'ib-bee' 
Carlsruhe,  carls'roo. 
Ca-rftn'de-16t. 
Cartagena,  kar'ta-je'na. 
cash -mere'. 

Cassiquiarl,  ka-se-ke-a'ree. 
Castine,  kaa-teen'. 
Ca-taw'ba. 
Catoche,  ka-to'cha. 
Cat'ta-rau'grus. 
Cftt'te-gftt. 
Cau'ca-sus. 
Cayembe,  ki-am'ba. 


Cayenne,  ki-en'. 
Cayman,  ki-man'. 
Cayuga,  kS-yoo'ga. 
Celebes,  sel'e-biz. 
^en'is,  or  se'ne'. 
Cette,  set. 
Cettigne,  chet-t'i'5'&. 
Ceuta,  su'ta. 
C^vennes,  ?&-Ten'. 
Ceylon,  see'lyn,  or  sl-lon'. 
Chagres,  cha'grgs. 
Chaleur,  sha-loor'. 
Ch^mouny,  sha'moo'ne'. 
Chandeleur,  shan-de-loor'. 
Chapala,  sha-pa'la. 
Chaimltepec,  cba-pool-tH- 

pek'. 
Char'i-ton. 
Chat'ta-hoo'che. 
CbHt-ta-noo'ga. 
Chaudiere,  Bho-d5-fer'. 

Cliautauqua,  Bba-taw'kwa. 

Chelsea,  chel'se. 

Clienaiigo,  she-n&ng'go. 

Chemnitz,  Kem'nits. 

Chemung,  she-mQng'. 

Che-ra^v'. 

Cherburg,  sher'bui'g,  or  shGa'- 
booR'. 

Che- sun 'cook. 

Cheviot,  chiv'e-ut. 

Cheyenne,  shI-en'. 

Chicago,  she-kaw'go. 

Chihuahua,  cbe-wa'wa. 

Chill,  chil'le;  Sp.  Chile,  chee'- 
1&. 

ChU'li-coth'e. 

Chimborazo,  chim'bo-rS'zo. 

Chin'cha. 

Chowan,  cho-wan'. 

Chuqiiisaca,  chjj-kS-wl'ka. 

Cienfiiegos,  se-6n'fwa'go8. 

Cimaron,  se-mii-ron'. 

Cobija,  ko-bee'Ha. 

Coblentz,  kob'lents. 

Cochabamba,  ko-chjl-bam'ba, 

Co'cliln  Chl'na. 

Cohahuila,  ko-U-wee'la. 

Cohoes,  ko-hoz'. 

Co-im'br»,  or  ko-eem'bra. 

Colima,  ko-lee'ma. 

Cologne,  ko-lon'. 

Colorado,  kol'o-rah'do. 

Comayagua,  ko-ml-a'gwa. 

Com'o-rin. 

Conecocheagrue,  kon'e-ko- 
cheeg'. 

Conecuh,  ko-nee'ka. 

Congo,  eong'go,  or  LiTingstone 

Connaught,  kon'nawt. 

Co'i>en-ha'gen. 

Copiapo,  ko-pe-a-po'. 

Coquimbo,  ko-kBm'bo. 

Cor'do-va. 

Corea,  ko-re'a. 

Corrientes,  koR-ae-en'tSs. 

Costa  Rica,  kos'tii  re'ka. 

Cotopaxi,  ko'to-paks'e. 

C6v'ing-tou. 

Cracow,  kra'ko. 

Cri-me'a. 

Croix  (St.),  kroi. 

Cuenca,  kwen'ka. 

Cumana,  ku-ma-na'. 

Curapoa,  ku'ra-so'. 

Cuyahoga,  kl'a-ho'ga. 

Cuzco,  koos'ko. 


Dahlonega,  da-lOn'S-ga. 


Dahomey,  dah-ho'm&'. 
Dai  Nippon'. 
I>arfur,  dar'foor'. 
Darien,  da-re-en', 
De-ca'tur. 
Del'a-go'a. 

Delhi  (Hindostan),  del'leo. 
Delhi  (U.  S.),  del'hi. 
Demerara,  dem'e-ra'ra. 
Des  Moines,  de-moin'. 
Dieppe,  dyep,  or  de-ep'. 
Dijoii,  de'zhoN'. 
Dnieper,  nee'per. 
Dniester,  nees'ter. 
Duminica,  dom'e-nee'ka. 
Dongola,  doug'go-la. 
Dordogne,  dOr-don'. 
Do'vre-fi-eld'. 
Drave. 

Drontheim,  dront'im. 
Dubufiue,  du-buk'. 
Duiuth,  du-lHth'. 
Dumfries,  dum-fpeess'. 
Dun -dee'. 
Du-ned'ln. 
Du<iuesne,  du-kan'. 
Dus'sei-dorf ;    Ger.  Diissel- 

dorf,  diis'sel-doRf. 
Dwi'na. 


E. 

Ean  Claire,  o  clair'. 
Kcuador,  ek-wa-doR' 
Edinburgh,  ed'in-bur-ruh. 
Ed'is-to. 
Kgripo,  a-gre'po. 
Eisenach,  T'zen-ak. 
Elbe,  elb  ;    Ger.  pron.  el'beh. 
Elburz,  el-bijrz'. 
El  Obeid,  el  o-ba'ed. 
Enara,  a-na'ra. 
Erfurt,  er'fijrt. 
Eriangen,  eB'lang-cn. 
Erzeroum,  erz-rouni'. 
Erzgebirge,  eRts'ga-becR'ga. 
Espinha^o,  6g-pen-ya'8o. 
Essequibo,  Ss-se-ke'bo. 
Essllngen,  e^s'ling-^n. 
Etlenne,  Saint,  s^t  et'e-en'. 
Et'o-^vah. 
Eufaula,  u-fg'la. 
Eylau,  t'lou. 


Faroe,  fa'ro. 

Fauquier,  faw-keer'. 

Fayal,  fi-iiwl'. 

Fernandina,  fer-nan-de'na. 

Ferrara,  fea-Ra'ra. 

Ferrol,  ffia-Rol'. 

Fezzan,  f^z'zan'. 

Finlsterre,  fin-is-tGr'. 

Flume,  fe-(5b'ma. 

Fond  dfi  It&c. 

For-mo'sa. 

Freiburg,  fri'burg. 

Frio,  free'o. 

Frob'ish-er. 

Fu'ca. 

Funchal,  foon'shaK. 

Funen,  fu'nen. 

Fuslyama,  f u-sT-ya'mi. 


a. 

iGairdner,  g&rd'ner. 

I  Galapagos,  gal'a-pa'gus. 


Galatz,  gd'latz. 

Ga-le'na. 

Gal  Unas,  gal-e'nas. 

Gal'veft-ton. 

Galway,  gawl'wa. 

Garonne,  ga-ron'. 

Gagpe,  gas'pi'. 

Gen'o-a. 

Ghauts,  gawts. 

Ghent,  gent ;  Fr.  Gand,  gSw. 

Giessen,  gces'sen. 

Gila,  He'la. 

Gironde,  .ie-rond' ;   Fr.  pron. 

zhe'r5Nd'. 
Gloucester,  glos'ter. 
Gobi,  gf/be. 
Godavery,  go-da'ver-I. 
Goes,  u6bs. 
Gotha,  go'ta. 
Gottingen,  get'ting-en,  or 

got' ting- en. 
Granada,  gra-na'dil. 
Greenwich,  grin'^. 
Grigiia,  grTg'wa. 
Guadalajara,  orQuadalaxara, 

gwa-]i!i-Ia-na'ra. 
Guadaloupe,  gaw'da-Ioop',  or 

ga'dii-loop'. 
Guadalquivir,  ^w'dal- 
kwiv'er. 

Guadiana,  gaw'de-A'na,  or 
gwa.'Dc-ii'na. 

GiUMiahani,  gwa-na-ha'uee. 

Guanajuato,  or  Guaua- 

Gxuato,  gwa-nii-uwa'to. 

Guapore,  gwa-po'ra. 

Guardafui,  gwar'da-fwee'  or 
gar'da-fwe'. 

Guatemala,  gaw'te-mala,   or 
g^vii-te-ma'la. 

Guayama.  gwT-a'ma. 

Guayaffuil,  gwT-a-keel'. 

Guaymas,  g^\^i'mas. 

Guernsey,  gt-rn'ze. 

Guiana,  ge-a'na. 

Guinea,  gin'e. 

Guyandott,  gT-an-dot'. 


H. 

Hague,  bag. 
Hainan,  ht-nan'. 
HakodadI,  harko-da'dee. 
HaUe,  hiil'leh. 
Han'o-ver. 
Hauran,  h5w-ran'. 
Haverhill  (Eng.),  haT'er-il. 
Haverhill  (Mass.),  ha'ver-il. 
Havre  de  Grace,  hav'er  de 

grass. 
Hawaii,  ha-wT'ee. 
Haytl,  ha'ti. 
Hebrides,  heb'rt-dez. 
He-le'na,  St. 
Helena  (Ark.),  hSl'e-na. 
Hel'i- go-land. 
Hel'sing-fors'. 
Hen-lo'pen. 
Hen-ri'ko. 
Herat,  her-af. 
Herzegovina,  h^rt^seh-go- 

Tee'na. 
Hess«;  Cas'sel. 
Him-a-la'ya. 
Hin-do-stau'. 
Ho-ang'ho,  pronounced  almost 

whang'ho'. 
Ho'bo-ken. 
Holstein,  hol'stin. 
Honduras,  hon-doo'ras. 
Honolulu,  ho-no-loo'loo. 


PRONUNCIATION   OF  DIFFICULT  GEOGRAPHICAL  NAMES. 


141 


Houaton,  hOs'tim. 

Hue,  boo-k'. 

IluelTa,  w«l'Ti. 

Ua<Me»,  WMfkl. 

Uu'ie. 

Hyderabad,  hI'ilar-»-b<id'. 


Ib«rvlIIe,  I'btr-Til. 
llCiukpe,  6-gwli'pa. 
llliiiiiiiu,  e«l-yam'pSO. 
llliiiiaiii,  evl-ya-ma'aee. 
lliiioii,  11-mdn'. 
luasua,  e-Dl'gwii. 
Indies,  In'dli. 
IxuiAbrack,  Tiu'prdbk. 
Intorlacheu,  iu'ler-UK'en. 
l'o-*va 

lquiciu«,  9-ke'ka. 

iHer,  tVzer. 

Itacoliunl,  S-Ui-cS-Ig-mS'. 

Ith'a-ca. 

1-u'ka. 

Iztacclhuate,  e8-tit«6- 

J. 

Jaoii,  ha-eu''. 

Jalapa,  aii-lii'pl. 

Jallitco,  or  XalUco,  Bi^lees'- 

ko. 
Jan  AEa^ren,  jSn  ml'en. 
J  assy,  yas'iie. 
Jen'a  ;   Ger.  pron.  ya'na. 
Juan  F^r  nan'dfiz 
Ju'an,  Saint;  Sp.  San  Juan, 

Jtuigfraa,  ydt>ng'frow. 


Kagegtma,  k3.-ga-8^ma. 
K.al  a-ina-zoo'. 
Kaiutchat'ka. 

Kanawha,  ka-naw^wa. 
Kan  (la-har^. 
Kankakee,  kauk'a-kee'. 
Kano,  ka-aJV. 

Karakorum,  ka-ra-kd'rtLm. 
KarlHkroua,  karls-krotyna. 
Ka  tahdiu 
Kearney,  kiir'ni. 
Kearnarge,  kgr'sirj'. 
KeiiiK'hec,  kCu-ne-bSk'. 
KenoHlia,  kfia-tysha. 
Ke^>-kuk''. 
KerKuelen,  kerg'e-letk 
Khiva,  Kee^va. 
Klakhta,  ke-iis'ta 
Kief,  ke^f,  or  k1.«t'. 
Kiel,  keel. 
Kiiimanjaru,  kTl-e-miui- 

ji-nV. 
Klulen,  kT'o-len. 
Kioto,  ki-o'to. 
Kit  ta  tln'ny. 
Klamath,  klam'at. 
Koliti.  krvU-en^ 
KonlKHl>erKi  keQ'igs-berg. 
Kordofan,  kor-dof&n'. 
Kueiilun,  kwea-l<Jba'. 
Kuka,  k(5t>/ka. 
KurUe,  kdb^rU. 


L. 

Lab'ra-d5r/ 

L.ad'o-Ka. 

La-dronef' ;  Sp.  pron.  UD'TO' 

nfo*. 
Lafayette,  laf-A^f. 
La  Foiirche,  )&  foonh- 
LaK»  MagKiore,  Wgo-mM' 

La  OuAym,  U  gwl'ri. 
Lancaater,  Ung'kw-tor. 
LanKuedoc,  Idn'Seh-dok'. 
I.aon,  lil'on'. 
Laredo,  li^ra'dd. 
La  llochelle,  U  ^5•■h6I^ 
Latakia,  la'U-kee'a. 
Lauwuu&e,  Uysiia'. 


Leffnano,  Ua-yiii'no. 

Leicester,  les'ter. 

Lebuter,  liu'ster. 

Leipsic,  np'sik. 

Leith,  Im-'th. 

L6um'iu  8ter  (U.  8.). 

LeouiiuHter  (£ag.}>  lem'ster. 

Le'oni   A>>.  pron.  li-On'. 

I<e  SueuTj  fK>or. 

Leyden,  UMen,  or  Ui'dea. 

Li«Be,  leej  ;  Fr.  pron.  le-teh^ 

I4«ie,  leel. 

Lima  ( Fern),  le^'mii. 

LimatU.  S.)  li'ma. 

Limoges,  le^mosh'. 

Lipari,  lli)'a-re,  or  l©e'pa-rt!«. 

Llanos,  lya'ndfl. 

Lodi  (Italy),  lo'dee. 

Lodi(0.  S.),  lo'di. 

Lo-fo'den. 

Loire,  Iw&a. 

Lomond  (Loch),  loK  lo'mund. 

LoH  Angeles,  locu  An'jH-^z. 

Loulsvliie,  loo''is-viI. 

Lnc'ca ;  It.  pron.  look^k&. 

Lupata,  lu-pa^tl. 

Luzon,  loo-zOn^ 

L2-cdm''ing. 

Ly'ons  ;  Fr.  Lyon,  le/ojf'. 


Maas,  mSa. 

Macao,  ma-ea'o,  or  ma-kow'. 

Machias,  ma-chi^as. 

Mack''i-naw. 

Madeira,  ma-dee^ra ;  Port, 

pron.  ma-dii'e-ra. 
Mad-ras'. 
Mad-rid^ 
Mad'rid(U.  S.). 
Magdala,  mSg'da-la. 
Magellan,  ma-jel'lan. 
Makoqueta,  ma-ko^ke-ta. 
Malabar'. 
Mal'a-ga,  or  m£'la-ga. 
Malta,  mawl'^ta. 
Mandalay,  man-dU'le. 
Manistee,  ma-nte'tg. 
Manitoba,  man-I-to-ba'. 
Manitoiiwoc,  man^e-too-wok' 
Manzanillo,  maa-sa-neel'yo. 
nf  aracayl>o,  marra-kt'bo. 
Maranliain,  m&r'a-nam.'. 
Mar''mo-ra. 
Marquesas,  mai^ka'sas. 
Marquette,  mar-kef. 
Marseilles,  mar-gftla/. 
Martinique,  Ina^'tI-ueeK^ 
Mas  sll-ldn. 
Ma-tan'zas. 
Mat'a-pan'. 
Mauch-Chonk,  mawk 

ch(lnk^ 
Maz'atlan'. 
Mechlin,  uiek^lin. 
Medina  (Arabia),  me-dee'na. 
Medina  (U.  S.),  me-dVna. 
Me-her'rin. 
Melnlngen,  mVning-en. 
Menai,  men'I,  or  men'a  (Strait). 
Mendocino,  m6n-do-see'no. 
Mercede,  mer-sad'. 
Mersey,  mSr'ri. 
Merthyr  TydTlI,  mSr'tber 

tid'vil. 
Messina,  m^s-sec'nii. 
Miami,  ml-a^mi. 
Milan,  mil^aa  (Italy);  ml-lftn' 

(U.S.). 
Mlquelon,  mik-e-lon'- 
Miramachi,  mlr'a-ma-shee'. 
Mod'e-na,  or  mod'&-na. 
Mohave,  mo-hftv'. 
Mo-nad'nock. 
Mo-non'^a-hela- 
Mont  ISlanc,  mdN  bl5li,  or 

Mount  Hlauc. 
Mont  Cenls,  mftK  Mh-n&,  or 

Mon'te-vld'e-o,  or  mon-t&* 

Tl'O'ilft-O. 

Hont-pe'li-er. 

Mo-re^a. 

Mos^cSmt  \  &IUB.  Hoftkwa, 
mosk-llrft'. 


Mozambique^  mo-sam-beek'. 
Munich,  mu^uik. 
Muscatine,  um8''ka-Ceeu'. 
Muskingum^  mtu-kiug^gam. 
Mysore,  uil-Bor'. 


N. 

Nan-kin'. 

Nantes,  uants;  Fr.pron.  nOst. 

Nan-tuck'^et. 

Natal,  iia-taU. 
Natch'i-toch'es;  sometimes 

pronounced  nak-e-tUHb'. 
Neufchatel,  uush'a'tel'. 
Ne'vis(Hfn). 
Newfoundland,  nu'fund- 

laud^ 
New  Or'le-ang. 
Ngami,  'Qg^^mee. 
Niagara,  iiT-ag^a-ra ;  sometimes 

pronounced  nT-ag^a-ra. 
Nicaragua,  uik^a-r^'gwa. 
Nice,  nces. 
Niger,  ni'jer. 
Nijue  Novgorod,  oMi'ue 

nOv'gft'nki. 
Nip'isslug^ 
Nismes,  nucm. 
Norwich  (Eng.),  nor'rij. 
Norwich  (U.  S.J,  nor^rich,  or 

nor'wich. 
Nov'go-rod'. 
Nueces,  nwu'sfia. 
Nyanza,  u5^-an'za. 
Nyassa,  u^-^a. 


Pierre  (Saint),  sOnt  p«er. 
Piqua,  pik'wa. 
Pisa,  pec^Hji. 
Pis-cat' a-qua. 
Plaquemine,  plak'mSn'. 
Plata  [Uio  de  la),  re^o  dA  la' 

pla'ta. 
Po^co-taPl-co. 
Pondicherry,  pon'de-8li6r'- 

ree. 
Pont^  char- train'. 
Popayan,  po-pi-an',  or  po-ptt- 

yin'. 
Po-po-cat'e-pCtl'. 
Port-au-Prince,  pOrt  (>• 

priiiss. 

Port  Mahon,  uta-bon'. 
Porto  Kico,  por'to  rce/ko. 
Portsmouth,  portA^muth. 
Potosi,  poto-see',  or  po-to'see. 
Poughkeepsie,  po-kip^sl. 
Prague,  prag. 
Prairie  du  Chien,  pra'rl  du 

sheen. 
Presciue  Isle,  presk  eel. 
Puebla,  pwtib^la. 
Pyrenees;  plr^e-uez. 


Queretaro,  k&-ra/ta-ro. 
Quesada ,  k&-sa'i>&. 
Quiche,  koe'cha, 
Quiloa,  kee'lo-a, 
Quin'e-liaug'. 
Quito,  kec'to. 


O. 

Oahn,  wSh'hoo. 

Oaxaca,  w^aa^kii. 

Obi.  o'be. 

Ock^lo-ko'nee. 

O-co^nee. 

Odense,  D'den-seh. 

Ogeechee,  o-gee'chee. 

Oise,  oiz  ;   Fr.  pron.  waz. 

Okeechobee,  5-ke-cho'bC. 

Okeflnokee,  (5-ke-fln-o'^ke. 

Okhotsk,  o-Kotsk'. 

Olean,  o-le-an'. 

O16ron,  o-li'roN'. 

Omaha,  6'ma-haw'. 

Oman,  o-man'. 

0-ne''ga. 

Oneida,  o-nVda. 

Onondaga,  on'un-daw'ga. 

Oii''t<vnaK'on. 

O -pei'i-ka. 

Op  e-lo^f'sas. 

Orizaba,  o-ro-8a'l)&. 

Or^te-gal. 

O'sage'. 

Ouachita,  wdsh^-tg. 

Oude,  owd. 

Ozark'. 


Pad'u-a. 

Paduca,  im-du'ka. 

Panama,  pftn'a-ina'. 

Papua,  pnp'oo-a,  or  pa'poo-a. 

Para,  pa-ra/. 

Paraguay,  p^-ra-gwa',  or  pa 

ri-gwi'. 
Par'a-marl-bo. 
Parana,  pa-ra-na^. 
Parime,  par-Y^m4. 
Parina.  pS.-re-na'. 
Pas-sa'ic 
Passaro,  pas'uS-ro. 
Pass  Christian,  p&ss  kris'te- 

an'. 
Pa-tras'. 
Pa  via,  pa-vec^a. 
Pecos,  pa^kos. 
Peipus,  pa'e-poo8. 
Pembina,  pfim'be-na. 
Pernauibuco,  p^B-uiim-boo'- 

ko. 
Pesth,  p<*j*t. 
l*hll'ip-|»ine. 
Placeuza,  pe-a-dien'siL 


B. 

Racine,  ras-seen'. 
Kagusa,  ra-goo^sa. 
Kali>vay,  raw'wu. 
Kaleigh,  raw'll. 
Rangoon,  rauggoon'. 
Rapid  an'. 
Rarltan,  rar'it-un. 
Reading,  r6d''ing. 
Recife,  ri-se^'fi. 
Regglo,  rSd'jo. 
Rensselaer,  ren'se-ler. 
Rey'kl-a-vik. 
Rheims,  recmz ;  Fr.  pron. 

T&tiZ. 

RIad,  ri-ad'. 
Riclielieu.  re'she-loo'. 
Rideau,  ru'diV. 
RIesengeblrge,  ree'zen-ga- 

bLH-RC'eh. 
RVga,  or  ree'ga. 
Riobamba,  ree-o-bam'ba. 
Rio  Colorado,  ree'o  ko-lo-ra/- 

do. 
Rio  del  Norte,  rVo  del  nort ; 

^.  pro7i.  rt'e'o  dSl  noR'ta. 
Rio    Grande      (Texas),     ri'o 

grand. 
Bio  Grande  (S.  A.),  rS'o-gran'- 

da. 
Rio  Janeiro,  pI'o  ja-nee/ro,  or 

ree'o  ja-nfi/ro. 
RIvoli,  riT'o-le,  or  ree'vo-le. 
Ro'a-noke'. 

Rouen,  roo'en  ;  Fr.pron.  rw6N. 
Riigen,  nt'jfca. 
Russia,  rQ.'<h1-a. 
Ryswick,  rlz'wik. 


S. 

Sabine,  sa-been'. 
Saco,.  mw'ko. 
Sag-haPI-en. 
Saguenay,  wig'eh-naf 
Sahara,  sa-ha'ra. 
Said,  »a-i'ed'. 
SaVgon,  sT'gon'. 
Sal'a-mo-nle'. 
Salford,    sawl'furd,    or 

furd. 
Salonica,  (wl-o-nS'ka. 
Saltillo,  sai-teel'yo. 
Saluda,  sa-loo'dii. 
Salvador,  sHI-vii-doR'. 
San  i>lego,  sftn  de-a'go. 


Sangamon,  sang'ga-moD. 
San  Joatiuiu,  ttau  hwa-keen''. 
San  JoHt;,  tiau  uu-tia'. 
SaiiJu'an;  '!>^.;n'on.  sin  hoo- 

an'',  or  iiwAn. 
Santa  Cruz,  san'ta  kroos. 
San'tik  F6 ;    Sp.  pron.  sln'tl 

(a. 

Santarem,  Ban-t&>r4SM;  almost 

san-ta-reng'. 
Santiago  de  Cuba,  aan-t^a'- 

go  do  ku'ba,  or  da  koo'ba. 
Sadne,  sOn. 
Sas-katch'a-W)^'. 
Sault  (St.  Ma'ry),  soo. 
SchaflTliausen,  idial-how'zen. 
Scheldt,  ttkelt. 
Schenectady,  eke-nck'ta-dj^. 
Schoharie,  sko-har'ree. 
Schuyler,  aki'ler. 
SchuylkiU,  skool'kil. 
Seine,  mui. 
Senegal,  sen'e-KawI'. 
Seuuaar,  sen'oar. 
Seville,  Mcv/jl,  or  bc-tU', 
Seychelles,  sa'shel'. 
Shaiiieliai,  «hang'hT'. 
Sliawangunk,  shong'gum. 
She-boy'gan. 
Shen  ando'ah. 
Sierra  Madre,  se-eK'Ea  max>'- 

ra. 
Sierra  Nevada,  se-ea'aa  na- 

va'Da. 
Slm^plon ;  Fr.  pron.  saN'ploN'. 
Sinai,  si/na,  or  Ri^na-I. 
Singapore,  sing'ga-por'. 
Sioux,  soo. 
SIsnl,  ec-sal'. 
Skag'er  Rack. 
Skaneateies,  ^kan'e-at'les. 
Sofala,  so-fa'ia,  or  so'fa-la. 
Soissons,  swas's^N', 
Somuie,  som. 
So-no^r^. 
Sorata,  so-rl'tS. 
Stettin,  stct^teen'. 
Steubenville,  stu'ben-Tll. 
Stroniboli,  strom''bo-lee. 
Sucre,  800/ kra. 
Suez,  foo-ez'. 
Sumatra,  soo-ma'trE. 
Surinam,  soo-rl-uam'. 
Su-wa'nee. 
Swansea,  swon'^e. 
Szegedin,  seg'ed'iu'. 


T. 

Tahiti,  tS-hi'te. 
Tahlequah,  ta'le-kwft. 
Tama(|ua,  ta-maw^kwa. 
Tamatave,  tam'a-tave. 
Tainaulipas,  txl-niou-lee'pas. 
Tampico,  tani-pce^ko. 
Tananarivo,  tii-na-na-re-voo'. 
Tanganyika,  tan-gan-y'i'ka. 
Tangier,  tan-jeer'. 
Taos,  ta'os  ;  almost  towss. 
Tapajos,  ta-pa'zhos,  or  ta-pa'- 

hOs. 
Taunton  (Eng.),  tawn'ton. 
Taunton  (Mass.),  tan'ton. 
Teche,  tCsh. 
Teheran,  teh-h'ran. 
Tehuantepec,  ta-wau-ta-pck' 
Ten-as'  se  r-im . 
TenerifTe,  ten'er-if . 
Terre-Haute,  ter'reh-hOt. 
Thames,  tfimz. 
Thibodeaux,  tib'o-dy. 
Thibet,  tib'et,  or  tl-bef . 
Tierra  del  Fuego,  te-£B'B& 

d61  fwft/go. 
Tiftis,  tif-lees/. 
TIm-buc'too. 
Titlcaca,  tit-e-kl'kfi. 
Tlvoll,  tiv'o-le,  or  tee^To^lee. 
Tokautlns,  to-kan-teens'. 
Toklo,  to'ki-o. 
Tonquin,  ton-keen'. 
To-pe'ka. 
Toulon,  too'lOn'. 
Toulouse,  too'looi' 
Tours,  tooB. 


Traf'algar',  or  Trii-f&l'gar. 

Trieste,  tre-^isf . 

Trin'I-dad'. 

TruxUlo,  or  Trujlllo,  troo- 

aeel'yo. 
Tucson,  tn-son'. 
Tulare,  too-U'ree. 
Tu'rin,  or  tu-rin'. 
Tj^ol ;  Ger.  pron.  to-tGL, 


U. 

Ucayall,  oo-ki-a'lee. 

UJUl,  Q-ji'ji. 

trim  ;  Ger.  pron.  dblm 

Um-ba'gog. 

IJpernavik,  oo-p^E'na-rik. 

IJp'sal. 

Uruguay,  u'roo-gwa',    or  oo- 

roo-gwl'. 
Utrecht,  u'trSkt. 


Valdai,  vai'dl. 

Val' la-do-lid';  S^.  pron.ni- 

ya-Do-lecD'. 
Vallejo,  vai-ya'HO. 
Valparaiso,  vai-pa-ri'so. 
Varennes,  va'ren'. 
Venezuela,  ven'e-zwee'la. 
Vera  Crtiz,  Ta'ra-krooe. 
Verde,  TSrd. 
Vergennes,  TSr-jenz'. 
Versailles,  TeR-salz' ;  FY.  pron. 

vgR'sai',  or  T6a-say". 
Vienna,  ve-en'na. 
Vincennes,     Tin-B6ni' ;     Fr, 

pron.  vaN'sea'. 
Vosges,  TOzh. 


W. 

Wachusett,  wg-chG'set. 
Wahsatch,  wa-saoh'. 
Warwick  (Kng.),  wor'rik. 
Warwick  (U.  S.),  wor'wik,  ©r 

wor'rik. 
Washita,  wdshl-taw. 
Wf^u-ke'gan.  • 

Wener,  *a'ner. 
We'ser  ;   Gfr.  pron.  ^a'aer, 
Wieliczka,  <(e-litch'ka. 
Wllkesliarre,  wUks'bar-ri. 
Willametje,  wil-la'met. 
Win'ne-ba'go. 
Win-ne-pe  saultee. 
Wis-c&s'set. 
Woolwich,      wdbl'itch,      or 

wdbl'ij. 
Worcester,  wiJbs'tcr. 
Wurtemberg,  wur/tcm-berg. 
Wy'an-dot'. 
Wy-o'mlng. 


Yakutsk,  ya-kootsk'. 
Yang-tse-klang,  yaog'tse-te- 

ang'. 
Tar'kand'. 
Ya-zoo/. 
Yem'en. 

Yenisei,  yen'e-sa'e. 
Yezo,  yS'zo. 
Yo-ko-hH'mft. 
Yo-sem'i-te. 

Youglilogheny,y{ib'ho-ga'nL 
Yp'si-l&n'tl. 
Y^'cft-tan',  or  yooOtft-tJui'. 


Zacateoas,  xilk-a^t&'kafl. 
Zacualpan,  sa-kwal-pan'. 
Zam-be'si,  or  sam-ba'se. 
Zanguebar,  zang'gft-b&r'. 
Zan'te. 
Zan'zl-bar'. 
Zlirich,  zu'rik. 
Zuyder,  zi'der. 


14  DAY  USE 

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1962 


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/\UG    4 


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A!WAR  1  6  1997' 


R[C'D0a2.6'^^ 


I 


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